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EDITION • OR • 1890 




^vSTRO/v c , 


V? 



- ov ~ 

°y REFE^ 


1,000,001 FIGURES AND FACTS 


Compactly and Conveniently Arranged. 


By PC. Iv. A R IvI STRONG. 


[)RED 


With Fifty Colored Maps and Numel_ 

Plates and Other Illustrations. 

I Opr 


“Which— if you. but open — O O,, V 

You will be unwilling, \ , **. 

For many a shilling, 


lany a shilling, 

To part with the profit 
Which you shall have of it.” 

— The Key to Unknown Knowledge. 


R. S. King Pub. Co., 278 Michigan Ave., Chicago. 















“ The era is fast approaching •:when no writer will be rcac 
by the majority except those who can eject for bales of manu 
script what the hydrostatic screw performs for bales of cottor 
—condense i?ito a period xvhat before occupied a page."—Cotter 



THE WERNER PTG. AND LITHO. CO. 
AKRON, o., AND CHICAGO, ILL., 
PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 


Copyright, 1889, BY Francis J. Schulte. 







. SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 

For alphabetical index see page 4$4- 

PAGE 

s of Knowledge—Handy Facts to Settle Arguments . 9 

?tte’s System of Memory—The Art of Never Forgetting 20 
Errors Corrected—Concise Rules in Grammar, Spelling 

.nd Pronunciation.. . . .31 

ictionary of Words often Mispronounced . ... 38 

i^unctuation.. . 41 

The Use of Capital Letters. 42 

How to Write a Letter.42 

Synonyms and Antonyms—A Dictionary of 20,000 Words 

of Similar and Contrary Meaning.44 

The World and the Universe—Facts Astronomical, Geo¬ 
graphical, Historical and Statistical.63 

Our Globe and Its Inhabitants.65 

The World’s Principal Countries. 68 

Europe.69 

Asia.84 

Oceania.92 

Africa.101 

North America.108 

South America.117 

Polar Exploration.125 

The World’s Largest Cities.128 

Cities of the U. S over 20,000 Population.129 

Names and mottoes of States, Geographical Nicknames, etc. 133 

U. S. Statistics in a Nutshell.141 

U. S. Political History in Brief.149 

Presidents of the United States, etc.169 

Wars of the United States.170 

The Civil War of 1861-65 .171 

Statistics of Wars the World Over.177 

The Decisive Battles of History.178 

Slavery and Serfdom.179 

Interesting Miscellaneous Information ..181 

A History of Organized Labor in the U. S.188 

Parliamentary Law —250 Points of Order Decided at Sight 190 

(iH) 





















SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 


PAGI 

The World’s History at a Glance—Compact Diagrams (in 
colors) suggesting Dates, Names and Events, and De¬ 
signed for Ready Reference and to Aid the Memory . 19r 


Interesting Facts of Science and Statistics.225j 

Some of Nature’s Wonders.231 

Legal Advice—Business Law in Brief. 232] 

Business and Legal Forms.26C 

Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations.26c] 

U. S. Mining Laws. 26'7 

The Law of Copyright.269 

Trademarks and Patents.27Cj 

Principal Points of Constitutional Law.272 

Voting and Naturalization.275 

The Presidential Election—The Electoral College and the 

Presidential Succession.276 

Qualification of Voters in all the States.278 

The Australian Ballot System.279 

Presidential Election Statistics. 27$ 

The Civil Service.281 

Public Lands and Homestead Laws. 28!a 

Stage Favorites—Professional and Private Names . . . 283 

Points of Criminal Law. 284; 

The Tariff—U. S. Customs Duties.285 

The Free List —Articles Free of Duty.287 

Stock Investments Explained.289 

Insolvency and Proceedings in Bankruptcy .... 292 

Terms used on ’Change.292 

The Inter-State Commerce Law.293 

Insurance—Valuable Information as to Companies and 

Policies.295 

The Internal Revenue.298 

Hints to Advertisers.299 

How to Collect a Debt.299 

How to Make Change Quickly.39C 

Compound Interest Tables.30C 

Short Interest Rules.301 

How to Detect Counterfeit Money.301 

Bankers’ Time Table.. , , . 302 

(iv) 
























SUMMART OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 

. Facts about Railroads and Transportation.303 

Train Management.. 

Railroad Signals (Illustrated).. 304 

f Speed on Railroads—Steamboating ....... 305 

| Facts about the Thermometer.306 

! Freezing, Fusing and Boiling Points.307 

Freezing Mixtures without Ice.308 

Physical Exercise—How to Develop the Various Muscles 

of the Human Body (Illustrated.).309 

Medicine and Hygiene—Diseases and their Rerrfedies—Pre¬ 
scriptions by Eminent Practitioners.312 

Homoeopathy. 9 

Contagious Diseases.324 

Artificial Feeding of Infants.325 

Accidents and Emergencies—What to Do.326 

Poisons and their Antidotes.329 

Doses of Medicine, etc.330 

Relative Value of Various Foods, etc.331 

Digestion of Foods, etc. ..332 

Useful Recipes, Trade Secrets, etc.333 

Three Hundred Facts about Poultry.311 

How to Tell the Age of Various Farm Animals . . . 344 

Medicines for the Horse.345 

The Seven Bibles of the World.346 

Canary Birds—How to keep them healthy and in good 

song. 347 

Value of Foreign Money.347 

Weights and Measures.348 

Practical Calculations : Short Cuts in Arithmetic—Handy 

Tables for Ready Reckoning.350 

Log and Lumber Tables, etc.354 

Miscellaneous Tables.358 

Facts for Builders.361 

Facts for Bricklayers and Plasterers.362 

How to Use Cement.365 

Useful Tables for Plumbers, etc. 366 

Hints for Roofers.368 

Facts about Gas.369 

(v) 




















SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Painting and Glazing.370 

Carpenters’ Work and Measuring.371 

Iron Tables, Tables for Metal-workers, etc.378 

Areas of Circles.383 

Circumferences of Circles.384 

Handy Facts for Architects and Builders.385 

Horse Power of Engines—Belting, etc.386 

Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes.388 

Useful Hydraulic Information.389 

Boilers, Chimneys, etc.391 

Specific Gravity, Tensile and Transverse Strength, etc. . 394 

Table of Squares and Cubes of all Numbers from i to 500 . 396 

Wedding Anniversaries and Birthdays.400 

Natural Sines, etc.401 

Useful Information for Printers, Paper Dealers, Pub 

lishers, etc.402 

Weather Forecasts.407 

Wind and Weather Signals (Illustrated).411 

The Language of Flowers.413; 

The Language of Gems.414 

The Wonders of Electricity—The Telephone, Phonograph, 

Graphophone, Electric Light, etc., etc. . . . .415 

Names and their Meaning: Christian. Names of Men and 

Women.42o| 

The Standard Silver Dollar.424 

Standard Time.424 

Theosophy, Buddhism and Mysticism.425 

The Evolution Theory.426 

The Mind Cure.426 

Gems of Poetry. 428) 

Misquotations. 432 ; 

Postal Information. 433 ; 

GEOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL MAPS. 

Map ot North and South America. 66 

Map of Ontario.. 

Map of Quebec.. 

Map of Manitoba.. 

(vi) 




















SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 

Statistical Map of Alaska. 74 

Statistical Map of Alabama. 75 

Statistical Map of Arizona.78 

Statistical Map of Arkansas. 79 

Statistical Map of California.82 

Statistical Map of Colorado.83 

Statistical Map of Connecticut. 86 

Statistical Map of North and South Dakota .... 87 

Statistical Map of Delaware.90 

Statistical Map of Florida.91 

Statistical Map of Georgia. 94 

Statistical Map of Idaho. 95 

Statistical Map of Illinois.98 

Statistical Map of Indiana. 99 

Statistical Map of the Indian Territory.102 

Statistical Map of Iowa.. . . 103 

Statistical Map of Kansas.106 

Statistical Map of Kentucky and Tennessee .... 107 

Statistical Map of Louisiana.110 

Statistical Map of Maine . “.Ill 

Statistical Map of Maryland.114 

Statistical Map of Massachusetts.115 

Statistical Map of Michigan.* 118 

Statistical Map of Minnesota.119 

Statistical Map of Mississippi.122 

Statistical Map of Missouri.123 

Statistical Map of Montana.126 

Statistical Map of Nebraska.127 

Statistical Map of Nevada.130 

Statistical Map of New Hampshire and Vermont. . . 131 

Statistical Map of New Jersey.134 

Statistical Map of New Mexico.135 

Statistical Map of New York.138 

Statistical Map of North and South Carolina.... 139 

Statistical Map of Ohio.142 

Statistical Map of Oregon. 143 

Statistical Map of Pennsylvania . . . / . . . . 146 

(vii) 

























SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONTENTS. 


Statistical Map of Rhode Island .... 

Statistical Map of Texas. 

Statistical Map of Utah. 

Statistical Map of Virginia and West Virginia . 
Statistical Map of Washington .... 

Statistical Map of Wisconsin. 

Statistical Map of Wyoming. 

Map of Mexico. 

Map of Central America and the West Indies 


PAGE 

147 
. 150 
151 
. 154 
155 
. 158 
159 
. 162 
163 


CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS. 


THE WORLD’S HISTORY AT A GLANCE. 

From Abraham to Cyrus. 

From Cyrus to Alexander. 

From Alexander to Augustus. 

From Augustus to Charlemagne. 

From Charlemagne to Napoleon. 

From Napoleon to the Present Time. 

America : The Colonies. 

The United States. 

STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL DIAGRAMS. 

The European Balance of Power. 

The World’s Food Supply*. 

The Wealth of Nations. 

Our Foreign Trade. 

Growth of U. S. Population since 1820 .... 

Religion in the United States. 

Density of Population in the United States . 

The Climates of the United States. 


193 


194 

195 

196 
198 
201 

203 

204 


209 

2101 


211 


212 

213 

214 

215 


216 


Consumption of Wine, Malt Liquors and Distilled Spirits 


in the United States.217 

Comparative Growth of Languages during Eighty-two Years 218 
Pensions paid by the United States since 1865 . . . 219 

Farm Animals throughout the World.220 

Acquisition of Territory by the United States .... 221 

Duration of Life.222 

The World’s Great Fairs.223 

Crops in the United States. 224 i 

(viii) 



























This rule to all -when I am dead: 

Be sure you''re right , then go ahead. 

—Davy Crockett. 



GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Handy Facts to Settle Many Arguments. 

London plague in 1665 . 

Telephone invented, 1861 . 

There are 2,750 languages. 

Two persons die every second. 

Sound moves 743 miles per hour. 

Chinese invented paper, 170 B.C. 

A square mile contains 640 acres. 

A barrel of pork weighs 200 pounds. 

Hawks can fly 150 miles in one hour. 

Watches were first constructed in 1476 . 

Chinese in United States in 1880 , 105 , 613 . 

Rome was founded by Romulus, 752 B.C. 

Gold was discovered in California in 1848 . 

Phonograph invented by T. A. Edison, 1877 . 

The first balloon ascended from Lyons, France, 1783 . 

The first fire insurance office in America, Boston, 1724 . 

Jet is found along the coast of Yorkshire, Eng., near Whitby. 
Napoleon I. crowned emperor, 1804 ; died at St. Helena, 1820 . 
Electric light invented by Lodyguin and Kossloff, at London, 

1874 - 

Harvard is the oldest college in the United States; established 
in 1638. 

War declared with Great Britain, June 19 , 1812 ; peace, Feb. 
j8, 1815. 

Until 1776 cotton spinning was performed by the hand spin¬ 
ning-wheel. 

Measure 209 feet on each side and you will have a square acre 

within an inch. 

Postage stamps first came into use in England in the year 1840 ; 
in the United States, in 1847. 

The highest range of mountains are the Himalayas, the mean 
elevation being from 16,000 to 18,000 feet. 

The largest inland sea is the Caspian, between Europe and 
Asia, being 700 miles long and 270 miles wide. 

The term “Almighty Dollar” originated with Washington 
Irving, as a satire on the American love for gain. 

9 




GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Envelopes were first used in 1839 . 

Telescopes were invented in 1590 . 

Iron horseshoes were made in 481 . 

A barrel of flour weighs 196 pounds. 

A hand (horse measure) is four inches. 

A rifle ball moves 1,000 miles per hour. 

First steamer crossed the Atlantic, 1819 . 

Assassination of Lincoln, April 14 , 1865 . 

German empire re-established, Jan. 18 , 1871 . 

Storm clouds move thirty-six miles an hour. 

First subscription library, Philadelphia, 1731 . • 

Dark Ages, from the 6 th to the 14 th century. 

The Latin tongue became obsolete about 580 . 

The great London fire occurred Sept. 26 , 1666 . 

The value of a ton of pure gold is $ 602 , 799 . 21 . 

Ether was first used for surgical purposes in 1844 . 

Ignatius Loyola founded the order of Jesuits, 1541 . 

First authentic use of organs, 755 ; in England, 951 . 

The first newspaper advertisement appeared in 1652 . 

Cork is the bark taken from a species of the oak tree. 
Benjamin Franklin used the first lightning rods, 1752 . 

Glass windows (colored) were used in the 8 th century. 
Authentic history of China commenced 3,000 years B.C. 
Introduction of homoeopathy into the United States, 18215 . 
Spectacles were invented by an Italian in the 13 th century. 
Medicine was introduced into Rome from Greece, 200 B.C. 
First electric telegraph, Paddington to Brayton, Eng., 18315 . 
The Chaldeans were the first people who worked in metals. 
First life insurance, in London, 1772 ; in America, Phila., 1812 . 
Egyptian pottery is the oldest known; dates from 2,000 B.C. 
Julius Caesar invaded Britain, 55 B.C.; assassinated, 44 B.C. 
Soap was first manufactured in England in the 16 th century. 
The largest free territorial government is the United States. 
First photographs produced in England, 1802 ; perfected, 1841 . 
First marine insurance, A. D. 533 ; England, 1598 ; America, 
1731. 

Professor Oersted, Copenhagen, discovered electro-magnetism 
in 1819. ’ 

First American express, New York to Boston—W. F. 
Harnden. 

Glass windows were first introduced into England in the 

8th century. 

Chicago is little more than fifty years old, and is the eighteenth 

city of the world. 

Glass was made in Egypt, 3,000 B.C.; earliest date of trans¬ 
parent glass, 719 B.C. 

First public schools in America were established in the New 
England States about 1642. 

10 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


First Atlantic cable operated, 1858 . 

A barrel of rice weighs 600 pounds. 

The first steel pen was made in 1830 . 

Light moves 192,000 miles per second. 

Slow rivers flow seven miles per hour. 

The first lucifer match was made in 1829 . 

A storm moves thirty-six miles per hour. 

Battles of Bunker Hill and Lexington, 1775 . 

The largest island in the world is Australia. 

First musical notes used, 1338 ; printed, 1502 . 

Kerosene was first used for illuminating in 1826 . 

National banks first established in United States, 1816 . 

Slavery in the United States was begun at Jamestown in 1619 . 
First postoffice established, between Vienna and Brussels, 
151(5. 

The Alexandrian Librarv contained 400,000 valuable books, 
47 B.C. 

Moscow, Russia, has the largest bell in the world, 432,000 

pounds. 

The highest denomination of United States legal tender notes 
is $10,000. 

The electric eel is only found in the northern rivers of South 
America. 

Columbus discovered America, Oct. 12 , 1492 ; the Northmen, 
A. D. 985. 

The first theater in the United States was at Williamsburg, 
Va., 1752. 

Congress declared war with Mexico, May 13 , 1846 ; closed 
Feb. 2, 1848. 

The first complete sewing machine was patented by Elias 

Howe, Jr., in 1846. 

London is the largest city in the world, containing a popula¬ 
tion of 4,764,312 persons. 

First cotton raised in the United States was in Virginia, in 
1621; first exported, 1747. 

The largest university is Oxford, in England. It consists of 
twenty-one colleges and five halls. 

First sugar-cane cultivated in the United States, near New 
Orleans, 1751; first sugar-mill, 1758. 

First telegraph in operation in America was between Wash¬ 
ington and Baltimore, May 27, 1844. 

The first illumination with gas was in Cornwall, Eng., 1792 ; 
in the United States, at Boston, 1822. 

Printing was known in China in the 6 th century; introduced 
into England about 1474; America, 1536. 

The great wall of China, built 200 B.C., is 1,250 miles in length, 
20 feet high, and 25 feet thick at the base. 

Glass mirrors first made by Venetians in the 13 th century. 
Polished metal was used before that time. 

Meerschaum means “froth of the sea.” It is white and soft 
when dug from the earth, but soon hardens. 

11 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


America was discovered in 1492 . 

A firkin of butter weighs 56 pounds. 

A span is ten and seven-eighths inches. 

Pianoforte invented in Italy about 1710 . 

The value of a ton of silver is $ 37 , 704 . 84 . 

First watches made in Nuremberg, 1477. 

A hurricane moves eighty miles per hour. 

Modern needles first came into use in 1545 . 

Electricity moves 288,000 miles per second. 

French and Indian War in America, 1754. 

The first horse railroad was built in 1826 - 7 . 

The average human life is thirty-one years. 

Coaches were first used in England in 1569 . 

French Revolution, 1789 ; Reign of Terror, 1793 . 

$ 1 , 000,000 gold coin weigh 3 , 685.8 lbs. avoirdupois. 

Mormons arrived at Salt Lake Valley, Utah, July 24 , 1847 . 
Experiments in electric lighting, by Thomas A. Edison, 1878 - 80 . 
Daguerre and Nieper invented the process of daguerreotype, 
1839. 

The largest cavern in the world is the Mammoth Cave, Ken¬ 
tucky. 

First American library founded at Harvard College, Cam¬ 
bridge, 1638. 

The first iron ore discovered in this country was found in Vir¬ 
ginia in 1715. 

“ Bravest of the Brave” was the title given to Marshal Ney at 
Friedland, 1807. 

The first steam engine on this continent was brought from 
England in 1753. 

The most extensive park is Deer Park in Denmark. It con¬ 
tains 4,200 acres. 

Books in their present form were invented by Attalus, king of 

Pergamus, in 887. 

Robert Raikes established the first Sunday-school, at Glou¬ 
cester, Eng., 1781. 

Albert Durer gave the world a prophecy of future wood 

engraving in 1527. 

St. Augustine, oldest city in the United States, founded by 
the Spaniards, 1565. 

Jamestown, Va., founded, 1607 ; first permanent English set¬ 
tlement in America. 

The first volunteer fire company in the United States was 
at Philadelphia, 1736. 

Oberlin College, Ohio, was the first in the United States that 

admitted female students. 

The first knives were used in England, and the first wheeled 
carriages in France in 1559. 

The largest park in the United States is Fairmount, at Phila¬ 
delphia, and contains 2,740 acres. 


12 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

The highest natural bridge in the world is at Rockbridge, Vir¬ 

ginia, being 200 feet high to the bottom of the arch. 

The largest circulation of paper money is that of the United 

States, being 700 millions, while Russia has 670 millions. 

The largest insurance company in the world is the Mutual 

Life of New York City, having cash assets of $108,000,000. 

The largest empire in the world is that of Great Britain, being 

8,557,658 square miles, and more than a sixth part of the globe. 

The first electrical signal ever transmitted between Europe and 

America passed over the Field submarine cable on Aug. 5, 1858. 

The longest tunnel in the world is St. Gothard, on the line of 

the railroad between Lucerne and Milan, being 9^ miles in length. 

The loftiest active volcano is Popocatapetl. It is 17,784 feet 

high, and has a crater three miles in circumference and 1,000 feet deep. 

Burnt brick were known to have been used in building the 

Tower of Babel. They were introduced into England by the Romans. 

The most remarkable echo known is that in the castle of Simon- 

etta, two miles from Milan. It repeats the echo of a pistol sixty times. 

The largest volcano in the world is Etna. Its base is 90 miles 
in circumference; its cone 11,000 feet high. Its first eruption occurred 474 
B.C. 

The largest tree in the world, as yet discovered, is in Tulare 
County, California. It is 275 feet high, and 106 feet in circumference at its 
base. 

The largest desert is Sahara, in Northern Africa. Its length 
is 3,000 miles and breadth 900 miles; having an area of 2,000,000 square 
miles. 

The largest suspension bridge is the Brooklyn. The length of 
the main span is 1,595 feet 6 inches. The entire length of the bridge is 
5,989 feet. 

The first deaf and dumb asylum was founded in England, by 

Thomas Braidwood, 1760; and the first in the United States was at Hart¬ 
ford, 1817. 

The largest diamond in the world is the Braganza, being a 
part of the Portuguese jewels. It weighs i,8So carats. It was found in 
Brazil in 1741. 

The grade of titles in Great Britain stands in the following 
order from the highest: A Prince, Duke, Marquis, Earl, Viscount, Baron, 
Baronet, Knight. 

The “Valley of Death,” in the island of Java, is simply the 
crater of an extinct volcano, filled with carbonic-acid gas. It is half a mile 
in circumference. 

The city of Amsterdam, Holland, is built upon piles driven 
into the ground. It is intersected by numerous canals, crossed by nearly 
three hundred bridges. 

Coal was used as fuel in England as early as 852, and in 1234 

the first charter to dig for it was granted by Henry III. to the inhabitants 
of Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Tobacco was discovered in San Domingo in 1496; afterwards 
by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. It was introduced in France in 1560, 
and into England in 1583. 

The present national colors of the United States were not 
adopted by Congress until 1777. The flag was first used by Washington at 
Cambridge, January 1,1776. 


13 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


Paris was known as Lutetia until 1184, when the name of the 

great French capital was changed to that which it has borne ever since. 

The longest span of wire in the world is used for a telegraph 
in India over the river Ristuah. It is over 6,000 feet, and is stretched be¬ 
tween two hills, 1,200 feet high. 

'The largest library in the world is in Paris, founded by Louis 
XIV. It contains 1,400,000 volumes, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and 
charts, and 150,000 coins and medals. 

The tallest man was John Hale, of Lancashire, England, who 
was nine feet six inches in height. His hand was seventeen inches long 
and eight and one-half inches broad. 

In round numbers, the weight of $1,000,000 in standard gold 
coin is 1% tons; standard silver coin, 26% tons; subsidiary silver coin, 25 
tons; minor coin, 5-cent nickel, 100 tons. 

The part of United States territory most recently acquired 
is the island of San Juan, near Vancouver’s* Island. It was evacuated by 
England at the close of November, 1873. 

The highest monument in the world is the Washington monu¬ 
ment, being 555 feet. The highest structure of any kind is the Eiffel 
Tower, Paris, finished in 1889 and 989 feet high. 

It is claimed that crows, eagles, ravens and swans live to be 100 
years old: herons, 59; parrots, 60; pelicans and geese, 50; skylarks,30; spar¬ 
row hawks,40; peacocks, canaries and cranes, 24. 

The greatest cataract in the world is Niagara, the height of the 
American Falls being 165 feet. The highest fall of water in the world is 
that of the Yosemite in California, being 2,550 feet. 

The most ancient catacombs are those of the Theban kings, 
begun 4,000 years ago. The catacombs of Rome contain the remains of 
about 6,000,000 human beings; those of Paris, 3,000,000. 

The quickest passage ever made across the Atlantic was that 
of the steamer Etruria, of the Cunard line, being 6 days 5 hours and 30 
minutes from New York to Queenstown ; the distance being 2,850 miles. 

There has been no irregularity in the recurrence of leap year 
every four years since 1800, and will be none until 1900, which will be a 
common year, although it will come fourth after the preceding leap year. 

The first English newspaper was the Eno-lis/i Mercury , issued 
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and was issued in the shape of a 
pamphlet. The Gazette of Venice was the original model of the modern 
newspaper. 

The Mormon Church in Utah shows a membership of 127,294 
—23,000 families. The church has 12 apostles, 58 patriarchs, 3,885 seventies, 
3,153 high priests, 11,000 elders, 1,500 bishops, and 4,400 deacons, being an 
office for each six persons. 

The seven sages flourished in Greece in the 6th century B.C. 
They were renowned for their maxims of life, and as the authors of the 
mottoes inscribed in the Delphian Temple. Their names are: Solon, Chilo, 
Pittacus, Bias, Periander, Cleobolus, and Thales. 

The largest stationary engine in the world is at the zinc mines 
at Friedenville, Penn. The number of gallons of water raised every 
minute is 17,500. The driving wheels are 35 feet in diameter and weigh 40 
tons each. The cylinder is no inches in diameter. 

The largest number of cattle ever received in one year was 
that of Chicago in the year 18S4, being 1,874,984 beeves, 30,223 calves, 5,640,- 
625 hogs, 749,917 sheep, and 15,625 horses. It required 9,000 trains of 31 cars 
each, which, if coupled together, would reach 2,146 miles. 

14 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

The estimated number of Christians in the world is over 408,- 
000,000; of Buddhists, 420,000,000; of the followers of Brahma, 180,000,000; 
of Mohammedans, 150,000,000; of Jews, 8,000,000; of atheists, deists, and in¬ 
fidels, 85,000,000; of pagans, 50,000,000, and of the 1,100 other minor creeds, 
123,000,000. 

The largest producing farm in the world lies in the southwest 
corner of Louisiana, owned by a northern syndicate. It runs one hundred 
miles north and south. The immense tract is divided into convenient pas¬ 
tures, with stations of ranches every six miles. The fencing alone cost 
nearly $50,000. 

The “Seven Wonders of the World” are seven most remarka¬ 
ble objects of the ancient world. They are: The Pyramids of Egpyt, 
Pharos of Alexandria, Walls and Hanging Gardens of habylon, Temple of 
Diana at Ephesus, the Statue of the Olympian Jupiter, Mausoleum of Arte¬ 
misia, and Colossus of Rhodes. 

A “monkey wrench” is not so named because it is a handy 
thing to monkey with, or for any kindred reason. “Monkey” is not its 
name at all, but “Moncky.” Charles Moncky, the inventor of it, sold his 
patent for $2,000, and invested the money in a house in Williamsburgh, Kings 
County, N. Y., where he now lives. 

The Union arch of the Washington Aqueduct is the largest 
in the world, being 220 feet; 20 feet in excess of the Chester arch across the 
Dee in England, feet longer than that of the London Bridge ; 92 feet 
longer than that at Neuilly on the Seine, and ioo feet longer than that of 
Waterloo Bridge. The height of the Washington arch is 100 feet. 

The largest ship ever built, the^Great Eastern, recently broken 
to pieces and sold to junk dealers, was designed and constructed by Scott 
Russell, at Maxwell, on the Thames. Worn, on the giant vessel was com¬ 
menced in May, 1854. She was successfully launched January 13, 1858. The 
launching alone occupied the time from November 3, 1857, until the date 
above given. Her total length was 600 feet; breadth, 118 feet; total weight 
when launched, 12,000 tons. Her first trip of any consequence was made to 
New York in 1859-60. 

In 1775 there were only twenty-seven newspapers published 
in the United States. Ten years later, in 1785, there were seven published 
in the English language in Philadelphia alone, of which one was a daily. 
The oldest newspaper published in Philadelphia at the time of the Federal 
convention was the Pennsylvania Gazette , established by Samuel Keimer, 
in 1728. The second newspaper in point of age was the Pennsylvania 
Journal, established in 1742 by William Bradford, whose uncle, Andrew 
Bradford, established the first newspaper in Pennsylvania, the American 
Weekly Mercury , in 1719. Next in age, but the first in importance, was the 
Pennsylvania Packet , established by John Dunlap in 1771. In 1784 it became 
a daily, being the first daily newspaper printed on this continent. 

Statistics of twenty leading libraries in this country show that, 

of over $500,000 spent, a little over $170,000 spent was devoted to books, while 
other expenses consumed $358,000. In the Mercantile Library of New York 
city it costs 14 cents to circulate a volume; in the Astor, 14^ cents are spent 
on each volume, or 27 cents on each reader; in Columbia College Library, 
21 cents per reader; in the Library Company of Philadelphia. 26 cents per 
volume, or 10 cents per head. The largest library in the world is the Na¬ 
tional Library of France, founded by Louis XIV., which now contains 1,- 
400,000 books, 300,000 pamphlets, 175,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps and charts, 
150,000 coins and medals, 1,300,000 engravings, and 100,000 portraits. The 
Library of Congress is the largest in this country, as it contained 570,000 
volumes in 1886. The Mercantile Library of Philadelphia was the seventh 
in point of size in this country in the same year. There are in the United 
States 5,338 libraries. 


15 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 

. The most extensive mines in the world are those of Freiberg, 

Saxony. They were begun in the twelfth century, and in 1835 the galleries, 

taken collectively, had reached the unprecedented length of 123 miles. A 
new gallery, begun in 1838, had reached a length of eight miles at the time 
of the census of 1878. The deepest perpendicular mining shaft in the world 
is located at Prizilram, Bohemia. It is a lead mine; it was begun 1832. 
January, 1880, it was 3,280 feet deep. The deepest coal mine in the world is 
near Tourney, Belgium; it is 3,542 * n depth, but, unlike the lead mine 
mentioned above, it is not perpendicular. The deepest rock-salt bore in the 
world is near Berlin, Prussia; it is 4,18c feet deep. The deepest hole ever 
bored into the earth is the artesian well at Potsdam, which is 5,500 feet in 
depth. The deepest coal mines in England are the Dunkirk collieries of 
Lancashire, which are 2,824 feet in depth. The deepest coal shaft in the 
United States is located at Pottsville, Pa. In 1885 it had reached a depth of 
1,576 feet. From this great depth 400 cars, holding four tons each, are 
hoisted daily. The deepest silver mine in the United States is the Yellow 
Jacket, one "of the great Comstock system at Virginia City, Nevada; the 
lower levels are 2,700 feet below the hoisting works._ 

The largest locomotive ever constructed prior to 1S80 was that 
made at the Baldwin Locomotive Works during the early part of 1879. It 
was turned out ready for use April 10th of that year and named Uncle Dick. 
Uncle Dick weighed 130,000 pounds; was sixty feet from headlight to the 
rear end of the tender. He is now at work on the Atchison, Topeka & 
Santa Fe road. During the year 1883 the same works that constructed 
Uncle Dick turned out several locomotives for the Northern Pacific railroad, 
each weighing 180,000 pounds. During the same year, as if to overshadow 
the Baldwin works, the Central Pacific company caused to be built at their 
shops in Sacramento, Cal., what are really the largest locomotives in the 
world. They have eight drive-wheels each, the cylinders are 19 inches in 
diameter, and the stroke three feet. These engines weigh, with the tender, 
as Uncle Dick’s weight was given, almost 190,000 pounds. The Baldwin 
Works, in 1889, completed for the Northern Pacific an engine weighing, 
with tender, 225,000 pounds. 

“ Liberty,” Bartholdi’s statue, presented to the United States 
by the French people in 18S5, is the largest statue ever built. Its conception 
is due to the great French sculptor whose name it bears. It is said to be a 
likeness of his mother. Eight years of time were consumed in the construc¬ 
tion of this gigantic brazen image. Its weight is 440,000 pounds, of which 
146,000 pounds are copper, the remainder iron and steel. The major part of 
the iron and steel was used in constructing the skeleton frame work for the 
inside. The mammoth electric light held in the hand of the giantess is 305 
feet above tide-water. The height of the figure is 152V2 feet; the pedestal 
91 feet, and the foundation 52 feet and 10 inches. Forty persons can find 
standing-room within the mighty head, which is 14% feet in diameter. A 
six-foot man standing on the lower lip could hardly reach the eyes. The 
index finger is eight teet in length and the nose 3^ feet. The Colossus of 
Rhodes was a pigmy compared with this latter day wonder. 

The largest stone bridge on the face of the earth is that finished 
in May, 1885, at Lagang, China. Chinese engineers had sole control of its 
construction. It crosses an arm of the China Sea, is nearly six miles in 
length, is composed entirely of stone, and has 300 arches, each 70 feet high. 
It is the most colossal structure ever reared by man, yet we sneer at the 
“heathen Chinee.” The largest truss iron bridge in the world crosses the 
Firth of Tay, Scotland. It is 18,612 feet in length and composed of eighty- 
five spans. The longest wooden bridge in the world is that crossing Lake 
Ponchartrain, near New Orleans, La. It is a trestle-work twenty-one miles 
in length, built of cypress piles which have been saturated with creosote 
oil to preserve them. The nighest bridge in the United States is over Kin- 
zina Creek, near Bradford, Pa. It was built in 1882, has a total span of 2,051 
feet and is 301 feet above the creek bed. 

16 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


The “Centennial ox,” bred by Samuel Barkley of Somerset 

County, Pa., was the largest specimen of the bovine the world has ever 
seen. He weighed 4,900 pounds the day he arrived in Philadelphia. This 
mountain of beef was of mixed stock, being short-horn, native, “scrub,” 
and Ayrshire, the short-horn predominating. After the exhibition was 
ended the giant ox was butchered and exhibited as “show beef” at Phila¬ 
delphia during the holidays of 1876. A short-horn steer weighing 4,100 
pounds was slaughtered at Detroit in 1874. A. N. Meal of Moberly, Mo., 
formerly owned the largest cow in the world. Mr. Meal disposed of her in 
1883, the Cole Circus Company being the purchasers. She weighed the day 
of sale 3,296 pounds. Mr.-John Pratt of Chase County, Kan., was formerly 
the owner ot a cow weighing 3,200 pounds. She was of the common “scrub” 
stock and stood nineteen hands high. 

The great pyramid of Ghizeh is the largest structure of any 
kind ever erected by the hand of man. Its original dimensions at the base 
were 764 feet square, and its perpendicular height in the highest point 4S8 
feet* it covers four acres, one rood, and twenty-two perches of ground and 
has been estimated by an eminent English architect to have cost not less 
than £30,000,000, which in United States currency would be about $145,200,- 
000. Internal evidence proves that the great pyramid was begun about the 
year 2170 B.C., about the time of the Dirth of Abraham, ft is estimated 
that about 5,000,000 tons of hewn stone were used in its construction, and 
the evidence points to the fact that these stones were brought a distance of 
about 700 miles from quarries in Arabia. 

The largest and grandest temple of worship in the world is 
the St. Peter’s Cathedral at Rome. It stands on the site of Nero’s circus, in 
the northwest part of the city, and is built in form of a Latin cross. The 
total length of the interior is 612% English feet; transept, 446}^ feet; height 
of nave, 152% feet; diameter of cupalo, 193 feet: height of dome from pave¬ 
ment to top of cross, 44S feet. The great bell alone without the hammer 
or clapper weighs 18,600 pounds, or over tons. The foundation was laid 
in 1450 A.D. Forty-three Popes lived and died during the time the work 
was in progress. It was dedicated in the year 1826, but not entirely finished 
until the year 1SS0. The cost, in round numbers, is set down at $70,000,000. 

The Capitol building at Washington, D. C., is the largest 
building in the United States. The corner stone was laid December 18th, 
1793, by President Washington, assisted by other Masons. It was partially 
destroyed by the British in 1S14. The present dome was begun in 1S55 an( f 
finished in 1863. The flag of the United States first floated from it Decem¬ 
ber 12th, 1S63. The cost of the entire building has been something over $13,- 
000,000. Its length is 715 feet 4 inches; width, 324 feet. It covers 3^ 
acres of ground. The distance from the ground to the top of the dome is 
307^ feet; diameter of the dome, 135% feet—making fifth as to size with the 
greatest domes of the world. 

The largest and costliest private mansion in the world is that 
belonging to Lord Bute, called Montstuart, and situated near Rothesay, 
England. It covers nearly two acres; is built in gothic style; the walls, 
turrets and balconies are Built of stone. The immense tower in the center 
of the building is 120 feet high, with a balcony around the top. The halls 
are constructed entirely of marble and alabaster, and the rooms are finished 
in mahogany, rosewoo'd and walnut. The fire-places are all carved mar¬ 
bles of antique design. The exact cost of this fairy palace is not known, 
but it has never been estimated at less than $8,000,000. 

The largest body of fresh water in the world is Lake Superior. 
It is 400 miles long and 180 miles wide; its circumference, including the 
windings of its various bays, has been estimated at i,Soo miles. Its area in 
square miles is 32,000, which is greater than the whole of New England, 
leaving out Maine. The greatest depth of this inland sea is 200 fathoms, 
or 1,200 feet. Its average depth is about 160 fathoms. It is 636 feet above 
sea level. 

17 


GEMS OF KNO WLEDGE. 


The corner stone of the Washington monument, the highest 
in the United States, and until 1880 the highest in the world, was laid July 
4th, 1848. Robert E. Winthrop, tnen the Speaker of the House, delivered 
the oration. Work progressed steadily for about six years, until the funds 
of the monumental society became exhausted. At that time the monument 
was about 175 feet high. From 1854 until 1879 nothing to speak of was done 
on the building. In the year last above named Congress voted an appro¬ 
priation of $200,000 to complete the work. From that time forward work 
progressed at a rapid rate until December 6th, 1884, when the aluminum 
apex was set at 55:; feet 5% inches from the foundation and the work de¬ 
clared finished. The foundation is 146% feet square; number of stones 
used above the 130-foot level, 9,163; total weight stone used in work, 81,120 
tons. 

The famous Corliss engine, the largest ever constructed, and 
the one used to drive the machinery in the great hall at the Centennial of 
1876, is now in the shops of the Pullman Car Company at Pullman, near 
Chicago, Ill. The writer is aware that this differs from other statements 
that have been made, it being generally supposed that the Emperor of 
Brazil bought the engine and removed it to his own country. He did talk 
of buying it, but the Bargain was never consummated. This tireless giant 
works in an upright position, is over 40 feet high, of 1,400 horse-power, and 
has two 40-inch cylinders and a io-foot stroke. 

The largest ferry-boat ever constructed was named the Solano, 
and is now in use daily conveying trains across the Straits of Carquinez, 
between Benecia and Port Costa. The Solano is 460 feet long, 116 feet 
wide, and 20 foot depth of hold. She has eight steel boilers, four rudders, 
and a tonage of 3,841 tons. On her decks are four railway tracks, with 
capacity for 4S ordinary freight cars and two locomotives, or'28 passenger 
coaches of the largest build. 

The highest building in the world, not counting the Eiffel 
tower and the Washington monument, is the Cologne cathedral. The 
height from the pavement to the top of the cupola is 511 feet. It is 511 feet 
long, exactly the same as the height, and 231 feet wide. It was begun 
August 15th in the year 1248, and was pronounced finished August 14th, 

1880, over 600 years after the corner stone was laid. 

The highest mountain on the globe is not, as is generally sup¬ 
posed, Mt. Everest, that honor belonging to a lofty peak named Mt. Her¬ 
cules on the Isle of Papua, New Guinea, discovered by Capt. Lawson in 

1881. According to Lawson, this monster is 32,763 feet in height, being 
3,781 feet higher than Mt. Everest, which is only 29,002 feet above the level 
of the Indian ocean. 

The largest State in our grand republic is Texas, which con¬ 
tains 274,356 square miles, capable of sustaining 20,000,000 of people, and then 
it would not be more crowded than Scotland is at present. It has been 
estimated that the entire population of the globe could be seated upon 
chairs within the boundary of Texas and each have four feet of elbow room. 

The largest anvil is that used in the Woolwich Arsenal, Eng¬ 
land. It weighs sixty tons. The anvil block upon which it rests weighs 
103 tons. Altogether 600 tons of iron were used in the anvil, ~the block and 
the foundation work. It is said to have been six months cooling before it 
was sufficiently hard to stand the shock of the immense hammer. 

The Mississippi river, from the source of the Missouri to the 
Eads jetties, is the longest river in the world. It is 4,300 miles in length 
and drains an area of 1,726,000 square miles. The Amazon, which is with¬ 
out doubt the widest river in the world, including the Beni, is 4,000 miles in 
length and drains 2,330,000 square miles of territory. 

The largest school in the world is the Jews’ free school of 

Spitalsfield, Eng., which has a daily attendance of 2,800 pupils. 

18 


GEMS OF KNOWLEDGE. 


New Orleans boasts the largest custom-house in this or any 
other land. It was begun in 1848 and over thirty years elapsed before it 
was finished and ready for use. It is built of Quincy granite, the interior 
being finished in finest marble. It has hi rooms; height from the pave¬ 
ment to the top of the cornice is eighty feet, and to the top of the light on the 
dome 187 feet. The dome itself is 49 feet square and 61 feet high; estimated 
total cost of building, $4,900,000. 

The largest hotel in the United States, and probably the largest 
in the world, is located at San Francisco, Cal. It is nine stories high and 
cost $3,500,000. It is named the Palace and has accommodations for 1,500 
guests. 

Paris claims the finest theater in the world. It is of solid 

atone, finished with marble floors, and covers about four acres of ground. 
La Scala, of Milan, has the largest seating capacity, while the Auditorium 
at Chicago, completed in 1889, seating 7,000 people, ranks second in that 
respect. __ 


The Name of God in Forty-eight Languages. 


Hebrew .Eleah, Jehovah 

Olotu tongue . 



Chaldaic. 

Eiliah 

German and Swiss... 

.... Gott 

Assyrian . 

Syrian and Turkish ... 

, Eleah 

Flemish. 


.Goed 

. Alah 

Dutch .. 



Malay . 

,. Alla 

English. 


.... .God 

Arabic . 

.Allah 

Teutonic . 


.... Goth 

Languages of the Magi 

. .Orsi 

Danish and Swedish. . 

.Gnd 

Old Egyptian. 

,. Teut 

Norwegian .. .. 


.Gnd 

Armenian .. 

. Teuti 

Slav. 


... .Bnch 

Modern Egyptian. 

Teun 

Polish. 


.Bog 

Greek . 

Theos 

Polacca. 


... . Bung 

Cretan . 

. Thios 

Lapp. 


.. .Jubinal 

Aedian and Dorian. .. . 
Latin . 

. ..Ilos 
. Deos 

Finnish . 

Runic . 


.. Jumala 
As 

Low Latin .. 

.. Diex 

Zemblian . 


. .. Fetiza 

Celtic Gaelic . 

,.. Diu 

Pannonian .. .. 


... Istu 

French. 

. Dieu 

Hindostanee . . 


,. . Rain 

Spanish . 

. Dios 

Coromandel .. 


. Brama 

Portuguese. 

. Deos 

Tartar . 


Magatai 

Old German . 

. Diet 

Persian. 


Sire 

Provincial . 

. Diou 

Chinese .. 


... Prussa 

Low Breton. 

. Done 

Japanese. 


. . Goezer 

Italian. 

. . Dio 

Madagascar ... 


. . Zannar 

Irish. 

, . Dia 

Peruvian. 

. Puchecammae 


Comparative Cost of Freight by Water and Rail.— It 
has been proved by actual test that a single tow-boat can trans¬ 
port at one trip from the Ohio to New Orleans 29,000 tons of 
coal, loaded in barges. Estimating in this way, the boat and its 
tow, worked by a few men, carries as much freight to its destina¬ 
tion as 3,000 cars and ioo locomotives, manned by 600 men, 
could transport. 
















































LOISETTE’S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. 


O MUCH has been said about Loisette’s memory system, 



the art has been so widely advertised, and so carefully 


> ' guarded from all the profane who do not send five or 

many dollars to the Professor, that a few pages showing how 
every man may be his own Loisette, may be both interesting and 
valuable. 

In the first place, the system is a good one, and well worth the 
labor of mastering, and if the directions are implicitly followed 
there can be no doubt that the memory will be greatly strength¬ 
ened and improved, and that mnemonic feats otherwise impossible 
may be easily performed. Loisette, however, is not an inventor, 
but an introducer. He stands in the same relation to Dr. Pick 
that the retail dealer holds to the manufacturer : the one pro¬ 
duced the article ; the other brings it to the public. Even this 
statement is not quite fair to Loisette, for he has brought much 
practical common sense to bear upon Pick’s system, and, in pre¬ 
paring the new art of mnemonics for the market, in many ways 
he has made it his own. 

If each man would reflect upon the method by which he him¬ 
self remembers things, he would find his hand upon the key of 
the whole mystery. For instance, the author was once trying to 
remember the word blythe. There occurred to my mind the 
words “ Bellman,” “ Belle,” and then the verse : 


-the peasant upward climbing 

Hears the bells of Buloss chiming.” 


“ Barcarole,” “ Barrack,” and so on until finally the word “ blythe ” 
presented itself with a strange insistance, long after I had ceased 
trying to recall it. 

On another occasion, when trying to recall the name “ Richard¬ 
son,” I got the -words “ hay-rick,” “ Robertson,” “ Randallstown,” ’ 
and finally “ wealthy,” from which, naturally, I got “ rich ” and 
“ Richardson ” almost in a breath. 

Still another example : trying to recall the name of an old 
schoolmate, “Grady,” I got “Brady,” “grave,” “gaseous,” “gas- 
tronome,” “gracious,” and I finally abandoned the attempt, j 
simply saying to myself that it began with a “ G,” and there was 
an “ a ” sound after it. The next morning, when thinking of 
something entirely different, this name “ Grady ” came up in my j 
mind with as much distinctness as though someone had whis- j 
pered it in my ear. This remembering was done without any 
conscious effort on my part, and was evidently the result of the 
exertion made the day before when the mnemonic processes were 
put to work. Every reader must have had a similar experience 
which he can recall, and which will fall in line with the examples 
given. 


20 



LOISETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORT. 


It follows, then, that when we endeavor, without the aid of any 
system, to recall a forgotten fact or name, our memory presents 
to us words of similar sound or meaning in its journey toward 
the goal to which we have started it. This goes to show that 
our ideas are arranged in groups in whatever secret cavity or 
recess of the brain they occupy, and that the arrangement is one 
not alphabetical exactly, and not entirely by meaning, but after 
some fashion partaking of both. 

If you are looking for the word “ meadow ” you may reach 
“ middle ” before you come to it, or “ Mexico,” or many words 
beginning with the “m” sound, or containing the “dow,” as 
“ window ” or “ dough,” or you may get “ field ” or “ farm ”— 
but you are on the right track, and if you do not interfere with 
your intellectual process you will finally come to the idea which 
you are seeking. 

How often have you heard people say, “ I forget his name, it 
is something like Beadle or Beagle—at any rate it begins with a 
B.” Each and all of these were unconscious Loisettians, and they 
were practicing blindly, and without proper method or direction, 
the excellent system which he teaches. The thing, then, to do— 
and it is the final and simple truth which Loisette teaches—is to 
travel over this ground in the other direction—to cement the 
fact which you wish to remember to some other fact or word 
which you know will be brought out by the implied conditions— 
and thus you will always be able to travel from your given start¬ 
ing-point to the thing which you wish to call to mind. 

To illustrate : let the broken line in the annexed diagram 
represent a train of thought. If we connect the idea “ a ” with 
“<?” through the steps b, c and d , the tendency of 
the mind ever afterwards will be to get to e from 
a that way, or from any of the intermediates that 
way. It seems as though a channel were cut in 
our mind-stuff along which the memory flows. 
How to make it flow this way will be seen later on. 
Loisette, in common with all the mnemonic teach¬ 
ers, uses the old device of representing numbers by 
as this is the first and easiest step in the art, this 
the most logical place to introduce the accepted 
equivalents of the Arabic numerals : 

O is always represented by s, z or c soft. 

1 is always represented by t, th or d. 

2 is always represented by n. 

3 is always represented by m. 

4 is always represented by r. 

5 is always represented by /. 

6 is always represented by sh.j, ch soft or g soft. 

21 



letters—and 
seems to be 


LOISETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORY. 

7 is always represented by g hard, k c hard, q or final ng. 

8 is always represented b yf or v. 

9 is always represented by / or b. 

All the other letters are used simply to fill up. Double letters in 
a word count only as one. In fact the sytem goes by sound, not 
by spelling—for instance “ this ” or “ dizzy ” would stand for 
ten; “catch” or “gush ” would stand for 76, and the only diffi¬ 
culty is to make some word or phrase which will contain only 
the "significant letters in the proper order, filled out with non- 
significants*into some guise of meaning or intelligibility.* Sup¬ 
pose you wished to get some phrase or word that would express 
the number 3685, you arrange the letters this way : 



You can make out “image of law,” “my shuffle,” “ match- 
ville,” etc., etc., as far as you like to work it out. 

Now, suppose you wished to memorize the fact that $1,000,000 
in gold weighs 3,685 pounds, you go about it in this way, and 
here is the kernel and crux of Loisette’s system : 

“ How much does $1,000,000 in gold weigh ? ” 

“ Weigh—scales.” 

“ Scales—statue of Justice.” 

“ Statue of Justice —image of law .” 

The process is simplicity itself. The thing you wish to recall, 
and that you fear to forget, is the weight; consequently you 
cement your chain of suggestion to the idea which is most 


* You can remember the equivalents by noting the fact that z is the first letter ot 
“ xero,” and c of “ cipher,” t has but one stroke, n has two, m three. The script/" 
is very like 8, the script p like 9; r is the last letter of four, l is the roman num¬ 
eral for fifty, which suggestsyfoc. The others may be retained as memorizing these 
two nonsense lines: 

Six shy Jewesses c^ase George 
Seven ^reat £ings came yuarrelb*^. 

22 













L OISE TTE'S STSTEM OF MEM OR T. 


prominent in your mental question. What do you weigh with ? 
Scales. What does the mental picture of scales suggest ? The 
statue of Justice, blindfolded and weighing out award and pun¬ 
ishment to man. Finally, what is this statue of Justice but the 
image of law ? and the words “ image of law,” translated back 
from the significant letters m, g soft ,f and /, give you 3-6-8~5, 
the number of pounds in $1,000,000 in gold. You bind together 
in your mind each separate step in the journey, the one suggests 
the other, and you will find a year from now that the fact will 
be as fresh in your memory as it is to-day. You cannot lose it. 
It is chained to you by an unbreakable mnemonic tie. Mark, that 
it is not claimed that “ weight ” will of itself suggest “ scales ” 
and “scales” “statue of Justice,” etc., but that, having once passed 
your attention up and down that ladder of ideas, your mental 
tendency will be to take the same route, and get to the same goal 
again and again. Indeed, beginning with the weight of $1,000,000, 
“ image of law” will turn up in your mind without your con¬ 
sciousness of any intermediate station on the way, after some 
iteration and reiteration of the original chain. 

Again, so as to fasten the process in the reader’s mind even 
more firmly, suppose that it were desired to fix the date of the 
battle of Hastings (A. D. 1066) in the memory; 1066 may be 
represented by the words “ the wise judge ” {th = 1, s = o,j = 6, 
dg = 6 ; the others are non-significants); a chain might be made 
thus : 

Battle of Hastings—arbitrament of war. 

Arbitrament of war—arbitration. 

A rbitration—j udgment. 

Judgment—the wise judge. 

Make mental pictures, connect ideas, repeat words and sounds, 
go about it any way you please, so that you will form a mental 
habit of connecting the “battle of Hastings” with the idea of 
“ arbitrament of war,” and so on for the other links in the chain, 
and the work is done. 

Loisette makes the beginning of his system unnecessarily diffi¬ 
cult, to say nothing of his illogical arrangement in the grammar 
of the art of memorj r , which he makes the first of his lessons. 
He analyzes suggestion into— 

1. Inclusion. 

2. Exclusion. 

3. Concurrence. 

All of which looks very scientific and orderly, but is really 
misleading, and badly named. The truth is that one idea will 
suggest another. 

1. By likeness or opposition of meaning, as “ house” suggests 

23 


LOISETTE'S STSTEM OE MEMORY. 

“ room ” or “ door,” etc.; or, “ white ” suggests “ black,” “ cruel,” 
“ kind,” etc. 

2. By likeness of sound, as “ harrow ” and “ barrow” ; “Henry ” 
and “ Hennepin.” 

3. By mental juxtaposition, a peculiarity different in each per¬ 
son, and depending upon each one’s own experiences. Thus, 
“ St. Charles ” suggests “ railway bridge ” to me, because I was 
vividly impressed by the breaking of the Wabash bridge at that 
point. “Stable” and “broken leg” come near each other in 
my experience, so do “ cow ” and “ shot-gun ” and “ licking.” 

Out of these three sorts of suggestion it is possible to get from 
any one fact to any other in a chain certain and safe, along which 
the mind may be depended upon afterwards always to follow. 

The chain is, of course, by no means all. Its making and its 
binding must be accompanied by a vivid, methodically directed 
attention, which turns all the mental light gettable in a focus 
upon the subject passing across the mind’s screen. Before 
Loisette was thought of this was known. In the old times in 
England, in order to impress upon the mind of the rising gene¬ 
ration the parish boundaries in the rural districts, the bovs were 
taken to each of the landmarks in succession, the position and 
bearings of each pointed out carefully, and, in order to deepen 
the impression, the young people were then and there vigorously 
thrashed, a mechanical method of attracting the attention which 
was said never to have failed. This system has had its supporters 
in many of the old-fashioned schools, and there are men who will 
read these lines who can recall, with an itching sense of vivid 
expression, the 144 lickings which were said to go with the mul¬ 
tiplication table. 

In default of a thrashing, however, the student must cultivate 
as best he can an intense fixity of perception upon every fact or 
word or date that he wishes to make permanently his own. It is 
easy. It is a matter of habit. If you will you can photograph an 
idea upon your cerebral gelatine so that neither years nor events 
will blot it out or overlay it. You must be clearly and distinctly 
aware of the thing you are putting into your mental treasure- 
house, and drastically certain of the cord by which you have 
tied it to some other thing of which you are sure. Unless it is 
worth your while to do this, you might as well abandon any 
hope of mnemonic improvement, which will not come without the 
hardest kind of hard work, although it is work that will grow 
constantly easier with practice and reiteration. 

You need, then : 

1. Methodic suggestion. 

2. Methodic attention. 

3. Methodic reiteration. 

U 


LOISETTE'S ST ST EM OF MEMORY. 


And this is all there is to Loisette, and a great deal it is. Two 
of them will not do without the third. You do not know how 
many steps there are from your hall door to your bed-room, 
though you have attended to and often reiterated the journey. 
But if there are twenty of them, and you have once bound the 
word “nice,” or “nose,” or “news,” or “ hyenas,” to the fact of the 
stairway, you could never forget it. 

The Professor makes a point, and very wisely, of the impor¬ 
tance of working through some established chain, so that the 
whole may be carried away in the mind—not alone for the value 
of the facts so bound together, but for the mental discipline so 
afforded. 

Here, then, is the “President Series,” which contains the 
name and the date of inauguration of each president from Wash¬ 
ington to Cleveland. The manner in which it is to be mastered 
is this: Beginning at the top, try to find in your mind some 
connection between each word and the one following it. See 
how you can at some future time make one suggest the next, 
either by suggestion of sound or sense, or by mental juxtaposi¬ 
tion. When you have found this dwell on it attentively for a 
moment or two. Pass it backward and forward before you, and 
then go on to the next step. 

The chain runs thus, the names of the presidents being in 


small caps, the date words in italics: 

President.Chosen as the first word as the one most apt to occur to the 

mind of any one wishing to repeat the names of the presidents. 

Dentist.Presi dent and dentist. 

Draw.What does a dentist do? 

To give up .When something is drawn from one it is given up. This is a 

date phrase meaning 1789. 

Self-sacrifice.There is an association of thought between giving up and self- 

sacrifice. 

Washington .Associate the quality of self-sacrifice with Washington’s charac¬ 

ter. 

Morning wash. IVaskington and wash. 

Dew.Early wetness and dew. 

Flower beds.Dew and flowers. 

Took a bouquet .Flowers and bouquet. Date phrase (1797). 

Garden.Bouquet and garden. 

Eden.The first garden. 

Adam.Juxtaposition of thought. 

Adams .Suggestion by sound. 

Fall..Juxtaposition of thought. 

Failure.Fall and failure. 

Deficit .Upon a failure there is usually a deficit. Date word (1801). 

Debt.The consequence of a deficit. 

Bonds.Debt and bonds. 

Confederate bonds. .Suggestion by meaning. 

Jefferson Davis.Juxtaposition of thought. 

JEFFERSON. 


Now follow out the rest for yourself, taking about ten at a 
time, and binding those you do last to those you have done be¬ 
fore each time, before attacking the next bunch. 

25 






















LOISETTE'S STSTEM OF ME MORE. 


1 


Jefferson 
Judge Jeffreys 
bloody assize 
bereavement 
too heavy a sob 
parental grief 
mad son 
Madison 
Madeira 
first-rate wine 
frustrating 
defeating 
feet 

toe the line 
row 

Monroe 

row 

boat 

steamer 

the funnel 

windpipe 

throat 

quinzy 

Quincy Adams 

quince 

fine fruit 

the fine boy 

sailor boy 

sailor 

jack tar 

Jackson 

stone wall 

indomitable 

tough make 

oaken furniture 

bureau 

Van Buren 

rent 

side-splitting 

divert 

annoy 

harassing 

Harrison 

Old Harry 

the tempter 


2 


the fraud 
painted clay 
baked clay 
tiles 
Tyler 
Wat Tyler 
poll tax 
compulsory 
free 'will 
free offering 
burnt offering 
poker 
Polk 

end of dance 

termination “ly” 

adverb 

part of speech 

part of a man 

Taylor 

measurer 

theodolite 

Theophilus 

fill us 

Fillmore 

more fuel 

the flajne 

flambeau 

bow 

arrow 

Pierce 

hurt 

feeling 

wound 

soldier 

cannon 

Buchanan 

rebuke 

official censure 

to officiate 

wedding 

linked 

Lincoln 

link 

stroll 

sea shore 


3 

the heavy shell 
mollusk 

unfamiliar word 
dictionary 
Johnson’s 
Johnson 
son 

bad son 
dishonest boy 
thievish boy 
take 
give 
Grant 
award 

school premium 
examination 
cramming 
fagging 
laborer 
hay field 
Hayes 
hazy 
clear 
vivid 

brightly lighted 
camp fire 
war field 
Garfield 
Guiteau 
murderer 
prisoner 
prison fare 
half fed 
well fed 
well read 
author 
Arthur 
round table 
tea table 
tea cup 
half full 
divide 
cleave 
Cleveland 

[ 26 ] 










LOISETTE'S STSTEM OF MEMORT. 


It will be noted that some of the date words, as “free will,” 
only give three figures of the date, 845; but it is to be supposed 
that if the student knows that many figures in the date of Polk’s 
inauguration he can guess the other one. 

The curious thing about this system will now become apparent. 
If the reader has learned the series so that he can say it down, 
from President to Cleveland, he can with no effort, and without 
any further preparation, say it backwards from Cleveland up to 
the commencement! There could be no better proof that this is 
the natural mnemonic system. It proves itself by its works. 

The series should be repeated backwards and forwards every day 
for a month, and should be supplemented by a series of the reader’s 
own making, and by this one, which gives the numbers from o to 
100, and which must be chained together before they can be learned. 



0—hoes 


1—wheat 

34—mare 

67—jockey 

2—hen 

35—mill 

68—shave 

3—home 

36—image 

69—ship 

4—hair 

37—mug 

70—eggs 

5—oil 

38—muff 

71—gate 

6—shoe 

39—mob 

72—gun 

7—hook 

40—race 

73—comb 

8—off 

41—hart 

74—hawker 

9—bee 

42—horn 

75—coal 

10—daisy 

43—army 

76—cage 

11—tooth 

44—warrior 

77—cake 

12—dine 

45 royai 

78—coffee 

13—time 

46—arch 

79—cube 

14—tower 

47—rock 

80—vase 

15—dell 

48—wharf 

81—feet 

16—ditch 

49—rope 

82—vein 

17—duck 

50—wheels 

83—fame 

18—dove 

51—lad 

84—fire 

19—tabby 

52—lion 

85—vial 

20—hyenas 

53—lamb 

86—fish 

21—hand 

54 —lair 

87—fig 

22—nun 

55 — U1 J 

88—fife 

23—name 

56—lodge 

89—fib 

24—owner 

57—lake 

90—pies 

25—nail 

58—leaf 

91—putty 

26—hinge 

59—elbow 

92—pane 

27—ink 

60—chess 

93—bomb 

28—knife 

61—cheat 

94—bier 

29—knob 

62—chain 

95—bell 

30—muse 

63—sham 

96—peach 

31—mayday 

64—chair 

97—book 

32—hymen 

65—jail 

98—beef 

33—mama 

66—judge 

j: _ 

09—pope 

T 271 










LOISETTE'S SYSTEM OF MEMORY . 

By the use of this table, which should be committed as 
thoroughly as the President series, so that it can be repeated 
backwards and forwards, any date, figure or number can be at 
once constructed, and bound by the usual chain to the fact which 
you wish it to accompany. 

When the student wishes to go farther and attack larger 
problems than the simple binding of two facts together, there is 
little in Loisette’s system that is new, although there is much 
that is good. If it is a book that is to be learned as one would 
prepare for an examination, each chapter is to be considered 
separately. Of each a precis is to be written in which the 
writer must exercise all of his ingenuity to reduce the matter in 
hand to its final skeleton of fact. This he is to commit to mem¬ 
ory both by the use of the chain and the old system of interro¬ 
gation. Suppose after much labor through a wide space of 
language one boils a chapter or an event down to the final irre¬ 
ducible sediment: “ Magna Charta was exacted by the barons 
from King John at Runnymede.” 

You must now turn this statement this way and that way; 
.asking yourself about it every possible and impossible question, 
"gravely considering the answers, and, if you find any part of it 
especially difficult to remember, chaining it to the question which 
willtbring it out. Thus, “ What was exacted by the barons from 
Kirig John at Runnymede ?” “ Magna Charta.” “ By whom 

was'Magna Charta exacted from King John at Runnymede?” 
“By. the barons.” “From whom was,” etc., etc. ? “King John.” 
“ From what king,” etc., etc. ? “King John.” “Where was Magna 
Charta,” etc., etc. ? “At Runnymede.” 

And so on and so on, as long as your ingenuity can suggest 
questions to ask, or points of view from which to consider the 
statement. Your mind will be finally saturated with the in¬ 
formation, and prepared to spill it out at the first squeeze of the 
examiner. This, however, is not new. It was taught in the 
schools hundreds of years before Loisette was born. Old news¬ 
paper men will recall in connection with it Horace Greeley’s 
statement that the test of a news item was the clear and satisfac¬ 
tory manner in which a report answered the interrogatories, 
“What?” “When?” “Where?” “Who?” “Why?” 

In the same way Loisette advises the learning of poetry, e. g ,, 
“The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold.” 

“ Who came down?” 

“ How did the Assyrian come down?” 

“ Like what animal did?” etc. 

And so on and so on, until the verses are exhausted of every 
scrap of information to be had out of them by the most assiduous 
cross-examination. 


28 


LOISETTE'S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. 

Whatever the reader may think of the availability or value of 
this part of the system, there are so many easily applicable tests 
of the worth of much that Loisette has done, that it may be 
taken with the rest. 

Few people, to give an easy example, can remember the value 
of 17 —the ratio between the circumference and the diameter of 
the circle—beyond four places of decimals, or at most five— 
3. 141592 4-. Here is the value to 108 decimal places: 

3. I 4 1 59 26 5 ' 35 8 9793 2 3 8 * 4 626 433 8 3 2 795 0288 4 i 9 ' 7 i 69399375 ' I0 5 8 2 
09749-4459230781-6406286208-9986280348-253421170679821480 
86 + 

By a very simple application of the numerical letter values, 
these 108 decimal places can be carried in the mind and recalled 
about as fast as you can write them down. All that is to be done 
is to memorize these nonsense lines: 

Mother Day will buy any shawl. 

My love pick up my new muff. 

A Russian jeer may move a woman. 

Cables enough for Utopia. 

Get a cheap ham pie by my cooley. 

The slave knows a bigger ape. 

I rarely hop on my sick foot. 

Cheer a sage in a "fashion safe. 

A baby fish now views my wharf. 

Annually Mary Ann did kiss a jay. 

A cabby found a rough savage. 

Now translate each significant into its proper value and you 
have the task accomplished. “ Mother Day,” ^=-3, tk= 1, r— 4, 
d= 1, and so on. Learn the lines one at a lime by the method 
of interrogatories. “Who will buy any shawl?” “Which Mrs. Day 
will buy a shawl?” ‘ Is Mother Day particular about the sort of 
shawl she will buy?” “ Has she bought a shawl?” etc., etc. Then 
cement the end of each line to the beginning of the next one, 
thus, “ Shawl ”—“warm garment ”—“ warmth ”—“ love ”—“ my 
love,” and go on as before. Stupid as the work may seem to you, 
you can memorize the figures in fifteen minutes this way so that 
you will not forget them in fifteen years. Similarly you can take 
Haydn’s Dictionary of Dates and turn fact after fact into non¬ 
sense lines like these which you cannot lose. 

And this ought to be enough to show anybody the whole art. 
If you look back across the sands of time and find out that it is 
that ridiculous old “ Thirty days hath September” which comes 
toyou when you are trying to think of the length of October—if 
you can quote your old prosody, 

“O datur ambiguis,” etc., 

■With much more certainty than you can serve up your Horace; if, 


LOISETTE'S SYSTEM OF MEMORY. 


in fine, jingles and alliterations, wise and otherwise, have stayed 
with you, while solid and serviceable information has faded 
away, you may be certain that here is the key to the enigma of 
memory. 

You can apply it yourself in a hundred ways. If you wish 
to clinch in your mind the fact that Mr. Love lives at 485 Dear¬ 
born Street, what is more easj r than to turn 485 into the word 
“rifle” and chain the ideas together, say thus: “Love —happi¬ 
ness—good time—picnic—forest—wood rangers— range—rifle 
range— rijle —fine weapon—costly weapon—dearly bought— 
Dearborn. ” 

Or if you wish to remember Mr. Bowman’s name, and you 
notice he has a mole on his face which is apt to attract your at¬ 
tention when you next see him, cement the ideas thus : “Mole, 
mark, target, archer, Bowman.” 

The Copying Pad. —Put 1 ounce of glue to soak in cold 
water until pliable and soft. Drain off the surplus water and 
place the dish in another dish containing hot water. When the 
glue is thoroughly melted, add 6 ounces of glycerine, which 
has been previously heated, and mix the two, adding a few drops 
of carbolic acid to prevent molding. Pour out this mixture into 
a shallow pan (9x12 inches) and set away to cool, taking care 
that the surface is free from blisters. After standing 12 hours it 
is ready for use. To use, write on a sheet of paper what you 
wish to duplicate with a sharp steel pen and strong aniline ink. 
When dry, lay the paper face down on the pad, pressing it lightly, 
and allow it to remain for a moment. On removing the paper 
an impression will be found on the face of the pad, and if another 
paper is placed upon it, it will receive a similar impression. 
When enough impressions have been taken, the face of the pad 
should be immediately washed with a sponge and cold water until 
the ink impression is wholly removed. If the surface of the pad 
becomes dry, wipe it with a moist sponge, and, if uneven, melt 
over a slow fire. , 

How to Raise the Body of a Drowned Person.— In a 
recent failure to recover the body of a drowned person in New 
Jersey, a French-Canadian undertook the job, and proceeded as 
folioW6 : Having supplied himself with some glass gallon jar's 
and a quantity of unslacked lime he went in a boat to the place 
where the man was seen to go down. One of the jars was filled 
half full of lime, and then filled up with water and tightly 
corked. It was then dropped into the wa^er and soon after ex¬ 
ploded at the bottom of the river with a loud report. After the 
third trial, each time at a different place, the body rose to the 
surface and was secured. 

30 



500 ERRORS CORRECTED. 


Concise Rules in Grammar, Spelling and Pronunciation. 

T HERE are several kinds of errors in speaking. The 
most objectionable of them all are those in which words 
are employed that are unsuitable to convey the meaning 
intended. Thus, a person wishing to express his intention of go¬ 
ing to a given place says, “ I propose going,” when, in fact, he 
purposes going. The following affords an amusing illustration 
of this class of error : A venerable matron was speaking of her 
son, who, she said, was quite stage-struck. “ In fact,” remarked 
the old lady, “he-is going to a premature performance this 
evening ! ” Considering that most amateur performances are 
premature, it cannot be said that this word was altogether mis¬ 
applied ; though, evidently, the maternal intention was to con¬ 
vey quite another meaning. 

Other errors arise from the substitution of sounds similar to 
the words which should be employed ; that is, spurious words 
instead of genuine ones. Thus, some people say “ remunera¬ 
tive ,” when they mean “ remunerative .” A nurse, recommend¬ 
ing her mistress to have a perambulator for her child, advised 
her to purchase a preamputator ! 

Other errors are occasioned by imperfect knowledge of the 
English grammar : thus, many people say, “ Between you and 
I,” instead of “ Between you and me.” And there are numerous 
other departures from the rules of grammar, which will be 
pointed out hereafter. 

Misuse of the Adjective : “ What beautiful butter!” 
“ What a nice landscape! ” They should say “ What a beautiful 
landscape!” “What nice butter!” Again, errors are fre¬ 
quently occasioned by the following causes : 

Mispronunciation of Words: Many persons say pro- 
nounciation instead of pronunciation ; others say pro-nun-she- 
a-shun, instead of pro-nun-ce-a-shun. 

Misdivision of Words and Syllables: This defect 
makes the words an ambassador sound like a nambassador , or 
an adder like a nadder. 

Imperfect Enunciation, as when a person says hebben for 
heaven , ebber for ever,jocholate for chocolate. 

To correct these errors by a systematic course of study would 
involve a closer application than most persons could afford, but 
the simple and concise rules and hints here given, founded upon 
usage and the authority of scholars, will be of great assistance to 
inquirers. 


31 



GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

RULES AND HINTS FOR CORRECT SPEAKING. 

Who and whom are used in relation to persons, and which in relation to things. 
But it was once common to say. "the man which." This should now be avoided. 
It is now usual to say, “Our Father who art in heaven,” instead of "which art in 
heaven ” 

Whose is, however, sometimes applied to things as well as to persons. We may 
therefore say, “The country whose inhabitants are free ” 

Thou is employed in solemn discourse, and you in common language. Ye 
(plural) is also used in serious addresses, and you in familiar language 

The uses of the word it are various and very perplexing to the uneducated. It 
is not only used to imply persons, but things, and even ideas, and therefore in 
speaking or writing, its assistance is constantly required. The perplexity respect¬ 
ing this word arises from the fact that in using it in the construction of a long sen¬ 
tence, sufficient care i< not taken to insure that when it is employed it really points 
out or icfers to the object intended. For instance, “It was raining when John 
set out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that it was over be¬ 
fore he arrived.” Now what is to be understood by this sentence? Was the rain 
over? or the market? Ei her or both might be inferred from the construction of the 
sentence, which, therefore, should be written thus:—“It was raining when John 
set out in his cart to go to market, and he was delayed so long that the market was 
over before he arrived.” 

Rule —After writing a sentence always look through it, and see that wherever the 
word it is employed, it refers to or carries the mind back to the object which it is 
intended to point out. 

The general distinction between this and that may be thus defined : this de¬ 
notes an object present or near, in time or place ; that something which is absent. 

These refers, in the same manner, to present objects, while those refers to things 
that are remote. 

Who changes, under certain conditions, into whose and whom; but that and 
which always remain the same, with the exception of the possessive case, as noted 
above. 

That may be applied to nouns or subjects of all sorts; as, the girl that went to 
school, the dog that bit me, the opinion that he entertains. 

The misuse of these pronouns gives rise to more errors in speaking and writing 
than any other cause. 

When you wish to distinguish between two or more persons, say, " Which is the 
happy man ?” not who —“ Which of those ladies do you admire?” 

Instead of “ Whom do you think him to be?” say, “ Who do you think him to 
be?” 

Whom should I see ? 

To whom do you speak ? 

Who said so ? 

Who gave it to you ? 

Of whom did you procure them? 

Who was he ? 

Who do men say that l am ? 

•SV^should never be added to his. their, mine, or thine. 

Each is used to denote every individual of a number. 

Every denotes all the individuals of a number 

Either and or denote an alternative: “I will take either road, at your 
pleasure , ” “I will take this or that.” 

Neither means not either ; and nor means not the other. 

Eithtr is sometimes used for each —“Two thieves were crucified, on either side 
one.” 

“ Let each esteem others as good as themselves,” should be, “Let each esteem 
others as good as him set/." 

“There are bodies each of which are so small,” should be, “each of which is so 
6 mall ” 

Do not use double superlatives, such as most straightest, most highest, most 
finest . 

32 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 


The term worst r has gone out of use ; but lesser is still retained. 

The use of such words as chiefest , cxtremest, etc., has become obsolete, because 
they do not give any superior force to the meanings of the primary words, chief, ex¬ 
treme, etc. 

Such expressions as more impossible, mo^e indispensable, more universal, more 
uncontrolable, more unlimited, etc., are objectionable, as they really enfeeble the 
meaning which it is the object of the speaker or writer to strengthen. For instance, 
impossible gains no strength by rendering it more impossible. This class of error is 
common with persons who say. “ A great large house,” “ A great big animal,” “ A 
little small foot,” “ A tiny little hand.” 

Here, there and inhere, originally denoting place, may now, by common consent, 
be used to denote other meanings ; such as, “ There I agree with you,” “ Where we 
differ,” “ We find pain where we expected pleasure,” “ Here you mistake me.” 

Hence, whence and thence, denoting departure, etc., may be used without the 
wordyrow. The idea of from is included in the word whence —therefore it is un¬ 
necessary to say “ From whence." 

Hither, thither, and whither, denoting to a place, have generally been super¬ 
seded by here, there, and where. But there is no good reason why they should not 
be employed. If, however, they are used, it is unnecessary to add the word to, be¬ 
cause that is implied— “Whither are you going?” “ Where are you going?” 
Each of these sentences is complete. To say, “Where are you going to. 1 ” is re¬ 
dundant. 

Two negatives destroy each other, and produce an affirmative. “Nor did he 
not observe them,” conveys the idea that he did observe them. 

But negative assertions are allowable. “His manners are not impolite,” which 
implies that his manners are in some degree marked by politeness. 

Instead of “ Let you and I, ” say ‘ ‘ Let you and me.” 

Instead of “I am not so tall as him," say “1 am not so tall as he.” 

When asked “Who is there?” do not answer “ Me," but “I.” 

Instead of “For you and /,” say “ For you and me.” 

Instead of “Says 1 ," say, “I said.” 

Instead of “ You arc taller than me," say “You are taller than I.” 

Instead of “ I ain't," or “I arn't," say “ I am not.” 

Instead of 4 Whether I be present or no, say “ Whether I be present or not.” 

For “ Not that I know on, say “ Not that I know.” 

Instead of “ Was I to do so,” say “ Were I to do so.” 

Instead of “ I would do the same if I was him," say “ I would do the same if I 


Instead of “ I had as lief go myself,” say “ I would as soon go myr elf, or “ I 
would rather.” 

It is better to say “Six weeks ago,” than “Six weeks back.” 

It is better to say “ Since which time,” than “ Since when.” 

It is better to say “ I repeated- it,” than “ I said so over again.” 

Instead of “ He was too young to have suffered much,” say “ He was too young to 


suffer much.” 

Instead of “Less friends,” say “ Fewer friends.” Less refers to quantity. 

Instead of “ A quantity of people,” say “A number of people.” 

Instead of “He and they we know,” say “ Him and them.^ 

Instead of “As far as I can see,” say “ So far as I can see.” 

Instead of “A new pair of gloves, say “A pair of new gloves.” 

Instead of “I hope you’ll think nothing on it,” say ** I hope you 11 taink nothing 
of it.” 

Instead of “ Restore it back to me,” say “ Restore it to me. * 

Instead of “I suspect the veracity of his story,” say “ I doubt the truth of his 

story.” . f 

Instead of “I seld<#n or ever see him,” say “ I seldom see him ” ;j 

Instead of “I expected to have found him,” say “ I expected to find him. 

Instead of “ Who learns you music?” say “Who teaches you music? ” 

Instead of “ I never sing whenever I can help it,” say “ I never sing when l can 

^Instead of “Before I do that I must first ask leave,” say “Before I do that I must 


ask leave.” 


33 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead of saying “The observation of the rule,” say “The observance of the 
rule.” 

Instead of “ A man of eighty years of age,” say “ A man eighty years old.” 

Instead of “ Here lays his honored head,” say “ Here lies his honored head.” 

Instead of “ He died from negligence,” say “He died through neglect,” or “ in 
consequence of neglect.” 

Instead of “Apples are plenty,” say “ Apples are plentiful.” 

Instead of “The latter end of the year,” say “The end, or the close, of the year.” 

Instead of “The then government,” say “ The government of that age, or century, 
or year, or time.” 

Instead of “A couple of chairs,” say “ Two chairs.” 

Instead of “ They are united together in the bonds of matrimony,” say “ They 
are united in matrimony,” or “They are married.” 

Instead of “We travel slow,” say “We travel slowly.” 

Instead of “He plunged down into the river,” say “ He plunged into the river.” 

Instead of “ He jumped prom off of the scaffolding,” say “He jumped off the 
scaffolding.” 

Instead of “He came the last of all,” say “ He came the last.” 

Instead of “ universal,” with reference to things that have any limit, say “gen¬ 
eral; ” “generally approved,” instead of “ universally approved;” “generally be¬ 
loved,” instead of “universally beloved.” 

Instead of “ They ruined one another,” say “ They ruined each other.” 

Instead of “If in case I succeed,” say “ If I succeed.” 

Instead of “A large enough room,” say “A room large enough.” 

Instead of “I am slight in comparison to you,” say “ I am slight in comparison 
with you.” 

Instead of “ I went for to see him,” say “ I went to see him.” 

Instead of “The cake is all eat tip,” say “The cake is all eaten ” 

Instead of “ Handsome is as handsome does,” say “ Handsome is who handsome 
does.” 

Instead of “The book fell on the floor,” say “The book fell to the floor.” 

Instead of “ His opinions are approved cf by all,” say “ His opinions are approved 
by all.” 

Instead of “ I will add one more argument,” say “ I will add one argument more,” 
or “another argument.” 

Instead of “A sad curse is war,” say “ War is a sad curse.” 

Instead of “He stands six foot high,” say “He measures six feet,” or “His 
height is six feet.” 

Instead of “ I go every ncnu and then,” say “ I go sometimes or often) ” 

Instead of ‘‘ Who finds him in clothes,” say “ Who provides him with clothes.” 

Say “ The first two,” and the last two,” instead of “ the two first,” “ the two last.” 

Instead of “His health was drank with enthusiasm” say “ His health was drunk 
enthusiastically.” 

Instead of “ Except I am prevented,” say “Unless I am prevented.” 

Instead of “ In its primary sense,” say “ In its primitive sense.” 

Instead of " It grieves me to see you,” say “I am grieved to see you.” 

Instead of “ Give me them papers,” say “Give me those papers.” 

Instead of “ Those papers I hold in my hand,” say “These papers I hold in my 
hand.” 

Instead of “ I could scarcely imagine but what,” say “ I could scarcely imagine 
but that.” 

Instead of “ He was a man notorious for his benevolence,” say “ He was noted 
for his benevolence.” 

Instead of “She was a woman celebrated for her crimes,” say “She was notorious 
on account of her crimes ” 

Instead of “ What may your name be ?” say “ What is youi®name?” 

Instead of “ I lifted it up,” say “ I lifted it.” 

Instead of “It is equally of the same value,” say “It is of the same value,” or 
“ equal value.” 

Instead of “1 knew it previous to your telling me,” say “I knew it previously to 
your telling me.” 

34 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION . 

Instead of “You was out when I called,” say “ You were out when I called.” 
Instead of “ I thought I should have won this game,” say “I thought I should 
win this game.” 

Instead of “ This much is certain,” say “ Thus much is certain,” or, “ So much is 
certain.” 

Instead of “ He went away as it may be yesterday week,” say “ He went away 
yesterday week.” 

Instead of “ He came the Saturday as it may be belore the Monday,” specify the 
Monday on which he came. 

Instead of “ Put your watch in your pocket,” say “Put your watch into your 
pocket.” 

Instead of “ He has got riches,” say “ He has riches.” 

Instead of “ Will you set down ?” say “ Will you sit down ?” 

Instead of “ No thankee,” say “ No, thank you.” 

Instead of “ I cannot do it without farther means,” say “ I cannot do it without 
further means.” 

Instead of “ No sooner but,” or “ No other but,” say “ than.” 

Instead of “ Nobody else but her,” say “Nobody but her.” 

Instead of “ He fell down from the balloon,” say “ He fell from the balloon.” 
Instead of “ He rose -up from the ground,” say “ He rose from the ground.” 
Instead of “ These kind of oranges are not good,” say “This kind of oranges is 
not good.” 

Instead of “ Somehow or another,” say “ Somehow or other.” 

Instead of “ Will I give you some more tea?” say “ Shall I give you some more 
tea?” 

Instead of “Oh dear, what will I do?” say “ Oh dear, what shall I do?” 

Instead of “I think indifferent of it,” say “ I think indifferently of it.” 

Instead of “ I will send it conformable to your orders,” say “I will send it con¬ 
formably to your orders.” 

Instead of “To be given away gratis,” say “ To be given away.” 

Instead of “ Will you enter in ?” say “ Will you enter ?” 

Instead of “ This three days or more,” say “These three days or more.” 

Instead of “ He is a bad grammarian,” say “ He is not a grammarian.” 

Instead of “ We accuse him for,” say “ We accuse him of.” 

Instead of “ We acquit him from,” say “We acquit him of.” 

Instead of “I am averse from that,” say “ I am averse to that.” 

Instead of “ I confide on you,” say “I confide in you.” 

Instead of “As soon as ever,” say “As soon as.” 

Instead of “The very best,” or “The very worst,” say “The best or the worst.” 
Avoid such phrases as “No great shakes,” “ Nothing to boast of,” “Down in my 
boots,” “ Suffering from the blues.” All such sentences indicate vulgarity. 

Instead of “ No one hasn't called,” say “No one has called.” 

Instead of “You have a right to pay me,” say “It is right that you should pay 
me.” 

Instead of “ I am going over the bridge,” say “ I am going across the bridge.” 
Instead of “I should just think I could,” say “ I think I can.” 

Instead of “There has been a good deal'' say “ There has been much.” 

Instead of saying “ The effort you are making for meeting the bill,” say “ The 
effort you are making to meet the bill.” 

To say “ Do not give him no more of your money,” is equivalent to saying “Give 
him some of your money.” Say “ Do not give him any of your money.” 

Instead of saying They are not what nature designea them,” say “They are 
are not what nature designed them to be.” 

Instead of saying “ I had not the pleasure of hearing his sentiments when I wrote 
that letter,” say “ I had not the pleasure of having heard,” etc. 

Instead of “The quality of the apples were good,” say “ The quality of the apples 
was good.” 

Instead of “ The want of learning, courage and energy are more visible,” say, 

"Is more visible.” 

Instead of “We die for want,” say “ We die of want.” 

Instead of “ He died by fever,” say “ He died of fever.” 

35 


GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

Instead of “I enjoy bad health,” say “My health is not good.” 

Instead of “ Either of the three,” say “ Any one of the three.” 

Instead of “ Better nor that,” say “ Better than that.” 

Instead of “ We often think on you,” say “ We often think of you.” 

Instead of “ Mine is so good as yours,” say “Mine is as good as yours.” 

Instead of “This town is not as large as we thought,” say “This town is not so 
large as we thought.” 

Instead of “ Because why?” say “Why?” 

Instead of “ That there boy,” say “ That boy.” 

Instead of “That horse is not much worth,” say “The horse is not worth much.” 

Instead of “ The subject-matter of debate,” say “ The subject of debate.” 

Instead of saying “ When he was come back,” say “ W'hen he had come back.” 

Instead of saying “His health has been shook,” say “His health has been 
shaken.” 

Instead of “ It was spoke in my presence,” say “ It was spoken in my presence.” 

Instead of “ Very right,” or “ Very wrong,” say “ Right,” or “ Wrong.” 

Instead of “The mortgageor paid him the money,” say “The mortgagee paid 
him the money,” The mortgagee lends ; the mortgageor borrows. 

Instead of “I took you to be another person,” say “ I mistook you for another per¬ 
son.” 

Instead of “ On either side of the river,” say “ On each side of the river.” 

Instead of “ 1 here's fifty,” say “ There are fifty.” 

Instead of “ The best of the two,” say “The better of the two.” 

Instead of “ My clothes have become too smaii for me,” say “ I have grown too 
stout for my clothes.” 

Instead of “Two spoonsful of physic,” say “Two spoonfuls of physic.” 

Instead of “She said, says she,” say “She said.” 

Avoid such phrases as “ I said, says I,” “Thinks I to myself,” etc. 

Instead of “ I don’t think so,” say “ I think not.” 

Instead of “ He was in eminent danger.” say “He was in imminent danger.” 

Instead of “ The weather is hot,” say “ The weather is very warm.” 

Instead of “I sweat,” say “I perspire.” 

Instead of “ I only want two dollars,” say “ I want only two dollars.” 

Instead of “ Whatsomever,” say “ Whatever,” or “ Whatsoever.” 

Avoid such exclamations as “God bless me !” “ God deliver me !” “ By God ! ” 
“ By Gosh ! ” “ My Lord ! ” “ Upon my soul,” etc., which are vulgar on the one 
hand, and savor of impiety on the other, for—“Thou shalt not take the name of the 
Lord thy God in vain.” 


PRONUNCIATION. 

Accent is a particular stress or force of the voice upon certain syllables or words. 
This mark ' in printing denotes the syllable upon which the stress or force of the 
voice should be placed. 

A word may have more than one accent. Take as an instance aspiration. In 
uttering this word we give a marked emphasis of the voice upon the first and third 
syllables, and therefore those syllables are said to be accented. The first of these 
accents is less distinguishable than the second, upon which we dwell longer, there¬ 
fore the second accent in point of order is called the primary, or chief accent of the 
word. 

When the full accent falls on a vowel, that vowel should have a long sound, as in 
vo'cal ; but when it falls on or after a consonant, the preceding vowel has a short 
sound, as in hab'it. 

To obtain a good knowledge of pronunciation, it is advisable for the reader to 
listen to the examples given by good speakers, and by educated persons. We learn 
the pronunciation of words, to a great extent, by imitation, just as birds acquire the 
notes of other birds which may be near them. 

But it will be very important to bear in mind that there are many words having a 
double meaning or application, and that the difference of meaning is indicated by 
the difference of the accent. Among these words, nouns are distinguished from 

36 



GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 


verbs by this means : nouns are mostly accented on the first syllable, and verbs on 
the last. 

Noun signifies name; nouns are the names of persons and things, as well as of 
things not material and palpable, but of which we have a conception and knowl¬ 
edge, such as courage, firmness, goodness, strength ; and verbs express actions, 
movements, &c. If the word used signifies that anything has been done, or is being 
done, or is, or is to be done, then that word is a verb. 

Thus when we say that anything is “ an in'sult,” that word is a noun, and is ac¬ 
cented on the first syllable ; but when we say he did it “to insult' another person,” 
the word insult' implies acting, and becomes a verb, and should be accented on the 
last syllable. « 

A list of nearly all the words that are liable to similar variation is given here. It 
will be noticed that those in the first column, having the accent on the first syllable, 
are mostly nouns; and that those in the second column, which have the accent on 
the second and final syllable, are mostly verbs: — 


Noun, &^c. 

Ab'ject 

Ab'sent 

Ab'stract 

Ac'cent 

Affix 

As'pect 

Attribute 

Aug'ment 

Au'gust 

Bom'bard 

Col'league 

Col'lect 

Com'ment 

Com'pact 

Com'plot 

Com'port 

Com'pound 

Com'press 

Con'cert 

Con'crete 

Con'duct 

Con'fine 

Con'flict 

Con'serve 

Con'sort 

Con'test 

Con'text 

Con'tract 


Verb , &c. 

abject' 

absent' 

abstract' 

accent' 

affix' 

aspect' 

attribute' 

augment' 

august' 

bombard' 

colleague' 

collect' 

comment' 

compact' 

complot' 

comport' 

compound' 

compress' 

concert' 

concrete' 

conduct' 

confine' 

conflict' 

conserve' 

consort' 

contest' 

context' 

contract' 


Noun, &*c. 

Con'trast 

Con'verse 

Con'vert 

Con'vict 

Con'voy 

De'crease 

Des'cant 

Des'ert 

De'tail 

Di'gest 

Dis'cord 

Dis'count 

Efflux 

Es'cort 

Es'say 

Ex'ile 

Ex'port 

Ex'tract 

Fer'ment 

Fore'cast 

Fore'taste 

Fre'quent 

Im'part 

Im'port 

Im'press 

Im'print 

In'cense 

In'crease 


Verb, &*c. 

contrast' 

converse' 

convert' 

convict' 

convoy' 

decrease' 

descant' 

desert' 

detail' 

digest' 

discord' 

discount' 

efflux' 

escort' 

essay' 

exile' 

export' 

extract' 

ferment' 

forecast' 

foretaste' 

frequent' 

impart' 

import' 

impress' 

imprint' 

incense' 

increase' 


Noun, &*c. 

In'lay 

In'sult 

Ob'ject 

Out'leap 

Per'fect 

Per'fume 

Per'mit 

Pre'fix 

Pre'mise 

Pre'sage 

Pres'ent 

Prod’uce 

Proj'ect 

Prot'est 

Reb'el 

Rec'ord 

Refuse 

Re'tail 

Sub'ject 

Su'pine 

Sur'vey 

Tor'ment 

Tra'ject 

Trans'fer 

Trans'port 

Un'dress 

Up'cast 

Up'start 


Verb, &c. 

inlay' 

insult' 

object' 

outleap' 

perfect' 

perfume' 

permit' 

prefix' 

premise' 

presage' 

present' 

produce' 

project' 

protest' 

rebel' 

record' 

refuse' 

retail' 

subject' 

supine' 

survey' 

torment' 

traject' 

transfer' 

transport' 

undress' 

upcast' 

upstart' 


Cement' is an exception to the above rule, and should always be accented on the 
last syllable. So also the word consols'. 


RULES OF PRONUNCIATION. 

C before a , o, and u, and in some other situations, is a close articulation, like k. 
Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to j in same, this-, as in cedar, civil, 
cypres s, capacity. 

E final indicates that the preceding vowel is long; as in hate, mete, sire, robe, 
lyre, abate, recede, invite, remote, intrude. 

E final indicates that c preceding has the sound of s ; as in lace , lance ; and that 
g preceding has the sound of j, as in charge, page, challenge. 

E final in proper English words, never forms a syllable, and in the most used 
words, in the terminating unaccented syllable it is silent. Ihus, motive, genuine, 
examine, granite, are pronounced motiv, genuin, examin, granit. 

E final, in a few words of foreign origin, forms a syllable ; as syncope, simile. 

37 





GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

E final is silent after / in the following terminations,— ble, cle, dle,fle, gle, kle, pie, 
tie, zle ; as in able, manacle, cradle, ruffle, mangle, wrinkle, supple, rattle,puzzle, 
which are pronounced ab'l, mana’cl, cra'dl, ruff, man'gl, wrin'kl, sup'pi, puz’zl. 

E is usually silent in the termination e 7 i ; as in token, broken ; pronounced tokn, 
brokn. 

OUS, in the termination of adjectives and their derivatives, is pronounced us ; as 
in gracious, pious, potnpously. 

(JE, Cl, Tl, before a vowel, have the sound of sh ; as in cetaceous, gracious, mo¬ 
tion, partial, ingratiate; pronounced cetashus, grashus, moshun, parshal, 
ingrashiate. 

SI, after an accented vowel, is pronounced like zh ; as in Ephesian, confusion ; 
pronounced Ephezhan, co 7 ifuzhon. 

When Cl or TI precede similar combinations, as in pronunciation, negotiation, 
they should be pronounced ce instead of she, to prevent a repetition of the latter 
syllable ; as pronunceasho 7 i instead of pronunsheashon. 

GH, both in the middle and at the end of words is silent; as in caught, bought, 
fright, nigh, sigh ; pronounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In the following excep¬ 
tions, however, gh are pronounced as f: — cough, chough, clough, e 7 iough, laugh, 
rough, slough, tough, trough. 

When WH begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation : as in 
what, whiffl, whale ; pronounced hwat, hwiffl, hzuale, w having precisely the sound 
of oo, French ou. In the following words w is silent:— who, who 77 i, whose, whoop, 
whole. 

H after r has no sound or use ; as in rheum, rhy 77 te ; pronounced reu 7 n, ryme. 

H should be sounded in the middle of words ; as in forehead, abAor, behold, ex¬ 
haust, inhabit, unAorse. 

H should always be sounded except in the following words:—heir, herb, honest, 
honour, hospital, hostler, hour, humour, and humble, and all their derivatives,— 
such as humorously, derived from humour. 

K and G are silent before « ; as know, gnaw; pronounced 7 to, naw. 

W before r is silent; as in wring, wreath ; pronounced ri 7 ig, reath. 

B after ;« is silent; as in du 77 ib, 7 iu 77 ib ; pronounced du 77 i, num. 

L before k is silent as in balk, zvalk, talk ; pronounced bauk, wauk, tauk. 

PH has the sound of f : as in philosophy ; pronounced flosofy. 

NG has two sounds, one as in singer, the other as in fin-ger. 

N after and closing a syllable, is silent ; as in hy 7 nn, condemn. 

P before s and t is mute ; as in psalm, pseudo, ptar 77 iiga 7 i ; pronounced sarm, 
sua'o, tar 7 nigan. 

R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the beginning of words and sylla¬ 
bles, such as robber, reckon, error ; the other is at the terminations of the words, or 
when succeeded by a consonant, as farmer, morn. 

There are other rules of pronunciation affecting the combinations of vowels, etc. ; 
but as they are more difficult to describe, and as they do not relate to errors which 
are commonly prevalent, it will suffice to give examples of them in the following list 
of words. When a syllable in any word in this list is printed in italics, accent of 
stress of voice should be laid on that syllable. 


WOEDS OFTEN MISPEONOUNCED. 


Again, usually pronounced a-gen, not as 
spelled. 

Alien, a-li-en, not ale-ye 7 i. 

Antipodes, an-tip-o-dees. 

Apostle, as a-pos l, without the t. 

Arch, artch in compounds of our own 
language, as in archbishop, archduke; 
but ark in words derived from the 
Greek, as archaic, ax-ka-\V ; archaeolo¬ 
gy, ar-ke-tf/-o-gy ; archangel, ark -ain- 
gel; archetype, ar-ke-type ; archiepis- 


copal, ar-ke-e-//j-co-pal; archipelago 
ar-ke-yW-a-go; ar-chives, ar- kivz, etc 
Asia, tf-sha. 

Asparagus as spe'Ied.jnot asparagrass. 
Aunt, ant, not awnt. 

Awkward, awb-wurd, not awk -urd. 
Bade, bad. 

Because, b e-caws, not be-cos. 

Been, bin. 

Beloved, as a verb, b e-luvd ; as an ad 
jective, be-luv-ed. Blessed, cursed 

88 




GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION 


etc., are subject to the same rule. 
Beneath, with the th in breath, not with 
the th in breathe. 

Biog'raphy, as spelled, not beography. 
Caprice, capreece. 

Catch, as spelled, not ketch. 

Chaos, £a-oss. 

Charlatan, shar- latan. 

Chasm, kazm. 

Chasten, chasn. 

Chivalry, shiv- airy, i 
Chemistry, kem’-is-try. 

Choir, kwire. 

Combat, hum- bat. 

Conduit, kjm-ddt. 

Corps, kor: the plural corps is pro¬ 
nounced korz. 

Covetous, cuv-e- tus, not cuv-e-chus. 
Courteous curt- yus. 

Courtesy (politeness), cwr-te-sey. 
Courtesy (a lowering of the body), curt¬ 
sey. 

Cresses, as spelled, not cr^-ses. 

Cu'riosity, cu-re-^-e-ty, not curarity. 
Cushion, coosh- un, not coosh-zVz. 

Daunt, dawnt, not dant or darnt. 

Design and desist have the sound of s, not 
of z. . 

Desire should have the sound of z. 

Dew, due, not doo. 

Diamond, as spelled, not di- mond. 
Diploma, de-/A7-ma, not dip- lo-ma. 
Diplomacy, de-//<7-ma-cy, not dip-lo-ma- 
cy. 

Divers (several), di-ve rz; but diverse 
(different), di- verse. 

Drought, drowt, not drawt. 

Duke, as spelled, not dook. 

Dynasty, dyn- as-te, not dy- nas-ty. 

Edict, ^-dickt, not ed- ickt. 

E’en, and e’er, een and air. 

Egotism, ^-o-tism, not ^-go-tism. 

Either, *-ther. 

Engine, en- jin, not in- jin. 

Epistle, without the t. 

Epitome, e-pit- o-me. 

Epoch, tf-pock, not ep- ock. 

Equinox, <?-qui-nox, not ^-kwe-nox. 
Europe, V-rope, not U- rup. 

Euro-/tf-an, not Eu-r^-pean. 

Every, ev-er-y, not ev-ry. 

Executor, egz-^cr-utor, not with the sound 
of x. 

Extraordinary, ex-M?r-di-ner-i, not ex- 
traordinary, nor extrornary. 

February, as spelled, not Febuary. 
Finance, f e-nance, notyfnance. 
Foundling, as spelled, notfond ding. 
Garden, gar- dn, not gar-den, nor gard- 
ing. 

Gauntlet, gawnt-let, not gant-let. 


Geography, as spelled, not jography, or 
gehography. 

Geometry, as spelled, not jom-etry. 

Haunt, hawnt, not hant. 

Height, hite, not highth. 

Heinous, hay-nus, not hee- nus. 

Horizon, ho -ri-zn, not hor- i-zon. 

Hymeneal, hy-men-^-al, not hy-menal. 

Instead, in -sted, not instid. 

Isolate, z-so-late, not zz-olate, nor is¬ 
olate. 

Jalap, jal-ap, not jolup. 

January, as spelled, notjenuary nor Jane- 
wary. 

Leave, as spelled, not leaf. 

Legend, lej-e nd, not /<?-gend. 

Many, men- ney, not man-ny. 

Marchioness, wzzr-shun-ess, not as spelled. 

Massacre, z««^-sa-ker. 

Mattress, as spelled, not mat- trass. 

Matron, z/z«-trun, not mat-ron. 

Medicine, med-e-cm, not med-cln. 

Minute (sixty seconds), min- it. 

Minute (small), mi -nute. 

Mischievous, z«z.y-chiv-us, not mis -cheev- 
us 

Ne’er, for never, nare. 

New, nu, not noo. 

Oblige, as spelled, not obleege. 

Oblique, ob -leek, not o -blike. 

Odorous, 0-der-us, not oa’-ur-us. 

Of, ov, except when compounded with 
there, here and where, which should 
be pronounced here-of, there-^,- and 
where-^i 

Off, as spelt, not awf. 

Organization, or-gan-i-za-shun. 

Ostrich, 0j-trich, not <?j-tridge. 

Pageant, paj-e nt, not pa- jant. 

Parent, pare-e nt, not par-e nt. 

Partisan, /«z--te-zan, not par-t e-zan, nor 
par- ti-zan. 

Physiognomy, as fiz-\-og-nomy, not physi- 
onnomy. 

Pincers, pin-ce rz. not pinch-erz. 

Plaintiff, as spelled, not plantiff. 

Precedent (an example), pres-e-dent; pre¬ 
cedent (going before in point of time, 
previous, former) is the pronunciation 
of the adjective. 

Prologue, pro- log, not prol- og. 

Radish, as spelled, not red-ish. 

Raillery, rail'-e r-y, or ral-e r-y, not as 
spelled. 

Rather, m-ther, not ray-ther. 

Resort, re-sort. 

Resound, r e-zound. 

Respite, res-p\t, not as spelled. 

Rout (a party; and to rout) should be pro¬ 
nounced rowt. Route (a road), root or 
rowt. 


39 



GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 


Saunter, sawn- ter, not sarn-ter or san-ter. 

Sausage, saw- sage, not jor-sidge, sas¬ 
sage. 

Schedule, sked- ule, not shed-ule. 

Seamstress is pronounced j<w«-stress, but 
semp-stress, as the word is sometimes 
spelt, in pronounced .r^wz-stress. 

Shire, as spelled, when uttered as a single 
word, but shortened into shir in compo¬ 
sition. 

Shone, shon, not shun, nor as spelled. 

Soldier, sole- jer. 

Solecism, sol-e- cizm, not j^-le-cizm. 

Soot, as spelled, not sut. 

Sovereign, ^<w-er-in, not suv-er-in. 

Specious, i'/t'-shus, not spesh- us. 

Stomacher, stum- a-cher. 

Stone (weight), as spelled, not stun. 

Synod, sin- od, not jy-nod. 

Tenure, /<?«-ure, not te-mire. 

Tenet, ten-e t, not te- net. 


Than, as spelled, not thun. 

Tremor, trem- ur, not tre- mor. 

Twelfth should have the th sounded. 
Umbrella, as spelled, not um-ber-el-la. 
Vase, vaiz or varz, not vawze. 

Was, woz, not wuz. 

Weary, weer- i, not wary. 

Were, wer, not ware. 

Wrath, rawth, not rath : as an adjective 
it is spelled wr<nh, and pronounced with 
the vowel sound shorter, as in wrath¬ 
ful, etc. 

Yacht, yot, not yat. 

Zenith, zen- ith, not a^-nith. 

Zodiac, so-de-ak. 

Zoology should have both o 's sounded, as 
zo-ol- o-gy, not zoo-lo-gy. 

Note .—The tendency of all good elocu¬ 
tionists is to pronounce as nearly in ac¬ 
cordance with the spelling as possible. 


Pronounce— 

—ace, not iss, as furnace, not furnz’jj. 

—age, not idge, as cabbage, courage, postage, village. 

—ain, ane, not in, as certain, certane, not cert in. 

— ate, not it, as modera^, not moderzV. 

—ect, not ec, as aspect, not asp ec ; subj^zv', not subj<?<r. 

—ed, not id, or ud, as wicked, not wick/d, or wickad. 

— el, not 1 , mode 1 , not modi ; novel, not nov 1 . 

—en, not n, as suddf«, not suddw.—Burden, burthen, garden, lengthen, seven, 
strengthen, often, and a few others, have the e silent. 

—ence, not unce, as influ ence, not influ -unce. 

—es; not is, as please, not pleas/j. 

— ile should be pronounced il, as fertzV, not fertz 7 e, in all words except chamomile 
(cam), exile, gentile, infantile, reconcile, and seniU, which should be pronounced 
ile. 

—in, not n, as Lat in, not Lat». 

—nd, not n, as husbawz/, not husbazz ; thousarcz/, not thousazz. 

—ness, not nzss, as carefulzz^xj, not carefuln/ss. 

—ng, not n, as singiw^, not singizz ; speakiz/^ - , not speakizz. 

— ngth, not nth, as strezz^th, not strezzth. 

—son, the o should be silent; as in treason, tre-zn, not tre-son. 

—tal, not tie, as capita/, not capltle ; metal, not met tie ; mortal, not mor/> ; periodi- 
cal, not periodic/^. 

—xt, not x, as n ext, not neo-. 


WHAT’S IN A NAME? 

An Englishman whose name was Wemyss 
Went crazy at last, so it semyss. 

Because the people would not 
Understand that they ought 
To call him not Weemis, but Weems. 

Another whose last name was Knollys 
Tried vainly to vote at the pollys ; 

But no ballot he cast 
Because to the last 

The clerk couldn’t call Knolliss Noles. 

40 


-C'9 ,Toflr 







GRAMMAR , SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION. 

And then a young butcher named Belvoir 
Went and murdered a man with a devoir 
Because the man couldn’t, 

Or possibly wouldn’t, 

Pronounce his name properly Beever. 

There was an athlete named Strachan 
Who had plenty of sinew and brachan. 

And he’d knock a man down 
With an indignant frOwn 
If he failed to pronounce his name Strawn. 


SHORT RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Words ending in e drop that letter on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. 
Exceptions—words ending in ge, ce, or oe. 

F inal e of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning with a conso¬ 
nant. Exceptions—words ending in dge, and truly, duly, etc. 

Final y of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is generally changed 
into i on the addition of a suffix. Exceptions—retained before ing and ish, as 
pitying. Words ending in ie and dropping the e by Rule x, change the i to y, as 
lying. Final y is sometimes changed to e, as duteous. 

Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form their plural by adding s; as 
money, moneys. Y preceded by a consonant is changed to ies in the plural; as 
bounty, bounties. 

Final y of a primitive word, preceded by a vowel, should not be changed into i 
before a suffix; as, joyless. 

In words containing ei or ie, ei is used after the sound of s; as ceiling, seize, ex¬ 
cept in siege and a few words ending in cier. Inveigle, neither, leisure and weird 
also have ei. In other cases it is used, as in believe, achieve. 

Words ending in ceous or cious, when relating to matter, end in ceous; all 
Others in cious. 

Words of one syllable, ending in a consonant, with a single vowel before it, double 
the consonants in derivatives; as, ship, shipping, etc. But if ending in a consonant 
with a double vowel before it, they do not double the consonant in derivatives; as 
troop, trooper, etc. 

Words of more than one syllable, ending in a consonant preceded by a single 
vowel, and accented on the last syllable, double that consonant in derivatives; as 
commit, committed; but except chagrin, chagrined. 

All words of one syllable ending in I, with a single vowel before it, have II at the 
close; as mill, sell. 

All words of one syllable ending in I, with a double vowel before it, have only one 
I at the close; as mail, sail. 

The words foretell, distill, instill and fulfill, retain the double II of iheir primi¬ 
tives. Derivatives of dull, skill, will and full also retain the double II when the 
accent falls on these words; as dullness, skillful, willful, fullness. 


PUNCTUATION. 

A period (.) after every declarative and every imperative sentence ; as. It is true. 
Do right. 

A period after every abbreviation; as, Dr., Mr , Capt. 

An interrogation point (?) after every question. 

The exclamation point (1) after exclamations; as, Alas! Oh, how lovely! 
Quotation marks (“ ”) enclose quoted expressions; as, Socrates said: ‘‘I be¬ 
lieve the soul is immortal.” 

A colon (:) is used between parts of a sentence that are subdivided by semi¬ 
colons. 

A colon is used before a quotation, enumeration, or observation, that is intro- 

41 




FUNCTUA TION. 


duced by as follows, the following, or any similar expression; as, Send me the 
following: io doz. “Armstrong’s Treasury,” 25 Schulte’s Manual, etc. 

A semicolon (;) between parts that are subdivided by commas. 

The semicolon is used also between clauses or members that are disconnected 
in sense; as, Man grows old; he passes away; all is uncertain. When as, namely, 
that is, is used to introduce an example or enumeration, a semicolon is put before 
it and a comma after it; as, The night was cold; that is, for the time of year. 

A comma (,) is used to set off co-ordinate clauses, and subordinate clauses not 
restrictive; as, Good deeds are never lost, though sometimes forgotten. 

A comma is used to set off transposed phrases and clauses; as, “When the 
wicked entice thee, consent thou not.” 

A comma is used to set off interposed words, phrases and clauses; as, Let us, it 
we can, make others happy. 

A comma is used between similar or repeated words or phrases; as, The sky, 
the water, the trees, were illumined with sunlight. 

A comma is used to mark an ellipsis, or the omission of a verb or other important 
word. 

A comma is used to set off a short quotation informally introduced; as. Who 
said, ‘‘The good die young” ? 

A comma is used whenever necessary to prevent ambiguity. 

The marks of parenthesis () are used to enclose an interpolation where such 
interpolation is by the writer or speaker of the sentence in which it occurs. Interpo¬ 
lations by an editor or by anyone other than the author of the sentence should be 
inclosed in brackets, []. 

Dashes (—) may be used to set off a parenthetical expression, also to denote an 
interruption or a sudden change of thought or a significant pause. 


THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

1. Every entire sentence should begin with a capital. 

2. Proper names, and adjectives derived from these, should begin with a capital. 

3. All appellations of the Deity should begin with a capital. 

4. Official and honorary titles begin with a capital. 

5. Every line of poetry should begin with a capital. 

6. Titles of books and the heads of their chapters and divisions are printed in 
capitals. 

7. The pronoun i, and the exclamation, O, are always capitals. 

8. The days of the week, and the months of the year, begin with capitals. 

9. Every quotation should begin with a capital letter. 

10. Names of religious denominations begin with capitals. 

11. In preparing accounts, each item should begin with a capital. 

12. Any word of special importance may begin with a capital. 



HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 

A business letter should be written clearly, explicitly, and concisely. 

Figures should be written out, except dates; sums of money should be both in 
writing and figures. 

Copies should be kept of all business letters. 

When you receive a letter containing money it should be immediately counted 
and the amount marked on the top margin. 

Letters to a stranger about one’s own personal affairs, requesting answer, should 
always inclose a stamp. 

Short sentences are preferable to long ones. 

Letters requiring an answer should have prompt attention. 

Never write a letter while under excitement or when in an unpleasant humor. 

Never write an anonymous letter. 

Do not fill your letter with repetitions and apologies. 

42 





HOW TO WRITE A LETTER. 

Avoid writing with a pencil. Use black ink. Blue or violet may be used, but 
black is better. 

In acknowledging receipt of a letter always mention date. 

Paper. Note, packet or letter size should be used. It is unbusiness-like- and 
very poor taste to use foolscap or mere scraps. 

Paging. If single sheets are used they should be carefully paged. Business 
letters should be written on but one side of the sheet. 

Folding. A letter sheet should be folded from bottom upward. Bring lower 
edge near the top so as to make the length a trifle shorter than the envelope, then 
fold twice the other way. The folded sheet should be just slightly smaller than the 
envelope. 

If note sheet, fold twice from bottom upward. If envelope is nearly square, single 
fold of note sheet is sufficient. 

Envelopes, like the paper, should be white, and of corresponding size and 
quality. It is poor taste to use colored paper, or anything but black ink. 

The postage stamp should be placed at the upper right hand corner. 

Address. This should be so plainly written that no possible mistake could be 
made either in name or address. It is unnecessary to add the letters P. O. after the 
name of the place. When the letter reaches the town it is not likely to go to the 
court-house or jail. Letters of introduction should bear upon envelope the name 
and address of the person to whom sent, also the words in the lower left hand corner, 
“Introducing Mr.-.” 


Luminous Paint. —This useful paint may, it is said, be made 
by the following simple method : Take oyster shells and clean 
them with warm water ; put them into the fire for half an hour; 
at the end of that time take them out and let them cool. When 
quite cool pound them fine and take away any gray parts, as they 
are of no use. Put the powder in a crucible in alternate layers 
with flour and sulphur. Put on the lid and cement with sand 
made into a stiff paste with beer. When dry, put over the fire 
and bake for an hour. Wait until quite cold before opening the 
lid. The product ought to be white. You must separate all 
gray parts, as they are not luminous. Make a sifter in the follow¬ 
ing manner : Take a pot, put a piece of very fine muslin very 
loosely across it, tie around with a string, put the powder into 
the top, and rake about until only the coarse pow'der remains; 
open the pot and you will find a very small powder; mix it into 
a thin paint with gum water, as two thin applications are better 
than one thick one. This will give a paint that will remain 
luminous far into the night, provided it is exposed to light during 
the day. 

Transferring Engravings. —It is said that engravings may 
be transferred on white paper as follows : Place the engraving 
a few seconds over the vapor of iodine. Dip a slip of white paper 
in a weak solution of starch, and when dry, in a weak solution of 
oil of vitriol. When again dry, lay a slip upon the engraving and 
place both for a few minutes under a press. The engraving will 
be reproduced in all its delicacy and finish. Lithographs and 
printed matter cannot be so transferred with equal success. 

43 




SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 


A Dictionary of 20,000 Words of Similar and Contrary 

Meaning. 

N O TWO words in the English language have exactly the 
same significance, but to express the precise meaning which 
one intends to convey, and also to avoid repetitions, it is 
often desirable to have at hand a Dictionary of Synonyms. Take 
President Cleveland’s famous phrase, “innocuous desuetude.” 
If he had said simply, “harmless disuse,” it would have sounded 
clumsy, whereas the words he used expressed the exact shade of 
meaning, besides giving the world a new phrase and the news¬ 
papers something to talk about. 

The following list of Synonyms, while not exhaustive, is 
quite comprehensive, and by cross-reference will answer most 
requirements. The appended Antonyms, or words of opposite 
meaning, enclosed in parentheses, will also be found extremely 
valuable, for one of the strongest figures of speech is antithesis , or 
contrast: 

ABANDON, leave, forsake, desert, renounce, relinquish, quit, forego, let go, 
waive. (Keep, cherish.) Abandoned, deserted, forsaken, wicked, reprobate, 
dissolute, profligate, flagitious, corrupt, depraved, vicious. (Cared for, virtuous.) 
Abandonment, leaving, desertion, dereliction, renunciation, defection. 
Abasement, degradation, fall, degeneracy, humiliation, abjection, debase¬ 
ment, servility. (Honor.) Abash, bewilder, disconcert, discompose, con¬ 
found, confuse, shame. (Embolden.) Abbreviate, shorten, abridge, condense, 
contract, curtail, reduce. (Extend.) Abdicate, give up, resign, renounce, aban¬ 
don, forsake, relinquish, quit, forego. Abet, help, encourage, instigate, incite, 
stimulate, aid, assist. (Resist.) Abettor, assistant, accessory, accomplice, pro¬ 
moter, instigator, particeps criniinis, coadjutor, associate, companion, co-operator. 
(Opponent.) Abhor, dislike intensely, view with horror, hate, detest, abominate, 
loathe, nauseate. (Love ) Ability, capability, talent, faculty, capacity, qualifi¬ 
cation, aptitude, aptness, expertness, skill, efficiency, accomplishment, attain¬ 
ment. (Incompetency.) Abject, grovelling, low, mean, base, ignoble, worthless, 
despicable, vile, servile, contemptible. (Noble.) Abjure, recant, forswear, dis¬ 
claim, recall, revoke, retract, renounce. (Maintain.) Able, strong, powerful, 
muscular, stalwart, vigorous, athletic, robust, brawny, skillful, adroit, competent, 
efficient, capable, clever, self-qualified, telling, fitted. (Weak.) Abode, residence, 
habitation, dwelling, domicile, home, quarters, lodging. Abolish, quash, destroy, 
revoke, abrogate, annul, cancel, annihilate, extinguish, vitiate, invalidate, nullify. 
(Establish, enforce.) Abominable, hateful, detestable, odious, vile, execrable. 
(Lovable.) Abortive, fruitless, ineffectual, idle, inoperative, vain, futile. (Effec¬ 
tual.) About, concerning, regarding, relative to, with regard to, as to, respecting, 
with respect to, referring to, around, nearly, approximately. Abscond, run off, 
steal away, decamp, bolt. Absent, a., inattentive, abstracted, not attending to, 
listless, dreamy. (Present.) Absolute, entire, complete, unconditional unquali¬ 
fied, unrestricted, despotic, arbitrary, tyrannous, imperative, authoritative, imper¬ 
ious. (Limited.) Absorb, engross, swallow up, engulf, imbibe, consume, merge, 
fuse. Absurd, silly, foolish, preposterous, ridiculous, irrational, unreasonable, 
nonsensical, inconsistent. (Wise, solemn.) Abuse, v., asperse, revile, vilify, re¬ 
proach, calumniate, defame, slander, scandalize, malign, traduce, disparage, de- 

44 



STNONTAIS AND ANTONl'MS. 


preciate, ill-use. (Praise, protect.) Abuse, «., scurrility, ribaldry, contumely, 
obloquy, opprobrium, foul, invective, vituperation, ill-usage. (Praise, protection.) 
Accede, assent to, consent, acquiesce, comply with, agree, coincide, concur, ap¬ 
prove. (Protest.) Accelerate, hasten, hurry, expedite, forward, quicken, des¬ 
patch. (Retard.) Accept, receive, take, admit. (Refuse.) Acceptable, agree¬ 
able, pleasing, pleasurable, gratifying, welcome. (Displeasing.) Accident, 
casualty, incident, contingency, adventure, chance. Accommodate, serve, 
oblige, adapt, adjust, fit, suit. (Disoblige, impede.) Accomplice, confederate, 
accessory, abettor, coadjutor, assistant, ally, associate, particeps criminis. (Ad¬ 
versary.) Accomplish, do, effect, finish, execute, achieve, complete, perfect, con¬ 
summate. (Fail.) Accomplishment, attainment, qualification, acquirement. 
(Defect.) Accord, grant, allow, admit, concede. (Deny.) Accost, salute, ad¬ 
dress, speak to, stop, greet. Account, narrative, description, narration, relation, 
detail, recital, moneys, reckoning, bill, charge. Accountable, punishable, 
answerable, amenable, responsible, liable. Accumulate, bring together, amass, 
collect, gather. (Scatter, dissipate.) Accumulation, collection, store, mass, 
congeries, concentration. Accurate, correct, exact, precise, nice, truthful. 
(Erroneous, careless.) Achieve, do, accomplish, effect, fulfill, execute, gain, win. 
Achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, attainment, performance, acquire¬ 
ment, gain.' (Failure.) Acknowledge, admit, confess, own, avow, grant, recog¬ 
nize, allow, concede. (Deny.) Acquaint, inform, enlighten, apprise, make 
aware, make known, notify, communicate. (Deceive.) Acquaintance, famil¬ 
iarity, intimacy, cognizance, fellowship, companionship, knowledge. (Unfamil¬ 
iarity.) Acquiesce, agree, accede, assent, comply, consent, give way, coincide 
with. (Protest.) Acquit, pardon, forgive, discharge, set free, clear, absolve. 
(Condemn, convict.) Act, do, operate, make, perform, play, enact. Action, 
deed, achievement, feat, exploit, accomplishment, battle, engagement, agency, 
instrumentality. Active, lively, sprightly, alert, agile, nimble, brisk, quick, sup¬ 
ple, prompt, vigilant, laborious, industrious. (Lazy, passive.) Actual, real, posi¬ 
tive, genuine, certain. (Fictitious.) Acute, shrewd, intelligent, penetrating, 
piercing, keen. (Dull.) Adapt, accommodate, suit, fit, conform. Addicted, 
devoted, wedded, attached, given up to, dedicated. Addition, increase, accession, 
augmentation, reinforcement. (Subtraction, separation.) Address, speech, dis¬ 
course, appeal, oration, tact, skill, ability, dexterity, deportment, demeanor. Ad¬ 
hesion, adherence, attachment, fidelity, devotion. (Aloofness.) Adjacent, 
near to, adjoining, contiguous, conterminous, bordering, neighboring. (Distant.) 
Adjourn, defer, prorogue, postpone, delay. Adjunct, appendage, appurtenance, 
appendency, dependency. Adjust, set right, fit, accommodate, adapt, arrange, 
settle, regulate, organize. (Confuse.) Admirable, striking surprising, wonderful, 
astonishing. (Detestable.) Admit, allow, permit, suffer, tolerate. (Deny.) Ad¬ 
vantageous, beneficial. (Hurtful.) Affection, love. (Aversion.) Affection¬ 
ate, fond, kind. (Harsh.) Agreeable, pleasant, pleasing, charming. (Disa¬ 
greeable.) Alternating, intermittent. (Continual.) Ambassador, envoy, 
plenipotentiary, minister. Amend, improve, correct, better, mend. (Impair.) 
Anger, ire, wrath, indignation, resentment. (Good nature.) Appropriate, 
assume, ascribe, arrogate, usurp. Argue, debate, dispute, reason upon. Arise, 
flow, emanate, spring, proceed, rise, issue. Artful, disingenuous, sly, tricky, in¬ 
sincere. (Candid.) Artifice, trick, stratagem, finesse. Association, combina¬ 
tion, company, partnership, society. Attack, assail, assault, encounter. (Defend.) 
Audacity, boldness, effrontery, hardihood. (Meekness.) Austere, rigid, rigor¬ 
ous, severe, stern. (Dissolute.) Avaricious, niggardly, miserly, parsimonious. 
(Generous.) Aversion, antipathy, dislike, hatred, repugnance. (Affection.) 
Awe, dread, fear, reverence. (Familiarity.) Awkward, clumsy. (Graceful.) 
Axiom, adage, aphorism, apothegm, by-word, maxim, proverb, saying, saw. 

BABBLE, chatter, prattle, prate. Bad, wicked, evil. (Good.) Baffle, confound, 
defeat, disconcert. (Aid, abet.) Base, vile, mean. (Noble.) Battle, action, 
combat, engagement. Bear, carry, convey, transport. Bear, endure, suffer, sup¬ 
port. Beastly, brutal, sensual, bestial. Beat, defeat, overpower, overthrow, 
rout. Beautiful, fine, handsome, pretty. (Homely, ugly.) Becoming, decent, 
lit, seemly, suitable. (Unbecoming.) Beg, beseech, crave, entreat, implore, solicit, 

45 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 

supplicate. (Give.) Behavior, carriage, conduct, deportment, demeanor. Be¬ 
lief, credit, faith, trust. (Doubt.) Beneficient, bountiful, generous, liberal, 
munificent. (Covetous, miserly.) Benefit, favor, advantage, kindness, civility. 
(Injury.) Benevolence, beneficence, benignity, humanity, kindness, tender¬ 
ness. (Malevolence.) Blame, censure, condemn, reprove, reproach, upbraid. 
(Praise.) Blemish, flaw, speck, spot, stain. (Ornament.) Blind, sightless, heed¬ 
less. (Far-sighted.) Blot, cancel, efface, expunge, erase, obliterate. Bold, 
brave, daring, fearless, intrepid, undaunted. (Timid.) Border, brim, brink, edge* 
margin, rim, verge, boundary, confine, frontier. Bound, circumscribe, confine, 
limit, restrict. Brave, dare, defy. Bravery, courage, valor. (Cowardice.) 
Break, bruise, crush, pound, squeeze. Breeze, blast, gale, gust, hurricane, 
storm, tempest. Bright, clear, radiant, shining. (Dull.) Brittle. Burial, in¬ 
terment, sepulture. (Resurrection.) Business, avocation, employment, engage¬ 
ment, occupation, art, profession, trade. Bustle, stir, tumult, fuss. (Quiet.) 

CALAMITY, disaster, misfortune, mischance, mishap. (Good fortune.) 
Calm, collected, composed, placid, serene. (Stormy, unsettled.) Capa¬ 
ble, able, competent. (Incompetent.) Captious, fretful, cross, peevish, 
petulant. (Good-natured.) Care, anxiety, concern, solicitude, heed, at¬ 
tention. (Heedlessness, negligence.) Caress, kiss, embrace. (Spurn, buf¬ 
fet ) Carnage, butchery massacre, slaughter. Cause, motive, reason. (Ef¬ 
fect, consequence.) Cease, discontinue, leave off, end. (Continue.) Cen¬ 
sure, animadvert, criticise. (Praise.) Certain, secure, sure. (Doubt¬ 
ful.) Cessation, intermission, rest, stop. (Continuance.) Chance, fate, 
fortune. (Design.) Change, barter, exchange, substitute. Changeable, fickle, 
inconstant, mutable, variable. (Unchangeable.) Character, reputation, repute, 
standing. Charm, captivate, enchant, enrapture, fascinate. Chastity, purity, 
continence, virtue. (Lewdness.) Cheap, inexpensive, inferior, common. (Dear.) 
Cheerful, gay, merry, sprightly. (Mournful.) Chief, chieftain, head, leader. 
(Subordinate.) Circumstance, fact, incident. Class, degree, order, rank. 
Clear, bright, lucid, vivid. (Opaque.) Clever, adroit, dexterous, expert, skillful. 
(Stupid.) Clothed, clad, dressed. (Naked.) Coarse, rude, rough, unpolished. 
(Fine.) Coax, cajole, fawn, wheedle. Cold, cool, frigid, wintry, unfeeling, stoic¬ 
al, (Warm.) Color, dye, stain, tinge. Colorable, ostensible, plausible, 
specious. Combination, cabal, conspiracy, plot. Command, injunction, order, 
precept. Commodity, goods, merchandise, ware. Common, mean, ordinary, 
vulgar. (Uncommon, extraordinary ) Compassion, sympathy, pity, clemency. 
(Cruelty, severity.) Compel, force, oblige, necessitate. (Coax, lead.) Compen¬ 
sation, amends, recompense, remuneration, requital, reward. Compendium, 
compend, abridgment. (Enlargement) Complain, lament, murmur, regret, re¬ 
pine. (Rejoice.) Comply, accede, conform, submit, yield. (Refuse.) Com¬ 
pound, complex. (Simple ) Comprehend, comprise, include, embrace, grasp, 
understand, perceive. (Exclude, mistake.) Comprise, comprehend, contain, em¬ 
brace, include. Conceal, hide, secrete. (Uncover.) Conceive, comprehend, 
understand. Conclusion, inference, deduction. Condemn, censure, blame, 
disapprove. (Justify, exonerate.) Conduct, direct, guide, lead, govern, regulate, 
manage. Confirm, corroborate, approve, attest. (Contradict.) Conflict, com¬ 
bat, contest, contention, struggle. (Peace, quiet.) Confute, disprove, refute, op¬ 
pugn. (Approve.) Conquer, overcome, subdue, surmount, vanquish. (Defeat.) 
Consequence, effect, event, issue, result. (Cause.) Consider, reflect, ponder, 
weigh. Consistent, constant, compatible. (Inconsistent.) Console, comfort, 
solace. (Harrow, worry.) Constancy, firmness, stability, steadiness. (Fickle¬ 
ness.) Contaminate, corrupt, defile, pollute, taint. Contemn, despise, dis¬ 
dain, scorn. (Esteem.) Contemplate, meditate, muse. Contemptible. de¬ 
spicable, paltry, pitiful, vile, mean. (Noble.) Contend, contest, dispute, strive, 
struggle, combat. Continual, constant, continuous, perpetual, incessant. (Inter¬ 
mittent. Continuance, continuation, duration. (Cessation.) Continue, persist, 
persevere, pursue, prosecute. (Cease.) Contradict, deny, gainsay, oppose. 
(Confirm.) Cool, cold, frigid. (Hot.) Correct, rectify, reform. Cost, charge, 
expense, price. Covetousness, avarice, cupidity. (Beneficence.) Cowardice, 
fear, timidity, pusillanimity. (Courage.) Crime, sin, vice, misdemeanor. (Vir- 

46 


STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. 

tue ) Criminal, convict, culprit, felon, malefactor. Crooked, bent, curved, 
oblique. (Straight.) Cruel, barbarous, brutal, inhuman, savage. (Kind.) Cul- 
tivation, culture, refinement. Cursory, desultory, hasty, slight. (Thorough.) 
Custom, fashion, manner, practice. 

DANGER, hazard, peril. (Safety.) Dark, dismal, opaque, obscure, dim. 
(Light.) Deadly, fatal, destructive, mortal. Dear, beloved, precious, costly, ex¬ 
pensive. (Despised, cheap.) Death, departure, decease, demise- (Life.) Decay, 
decline, consumption. (Growth.) Deceive, delude, impose upon, over-reach, gull, 
dupe, cheat. Deceit, cheat, imposition, trick, delusion, guile, beguilement, treach¬ 
ery, sham. (truthfulness.) Decide, determine, settle, adjudicate, terminate, re¬ 
solve. Decipher, read, spell, interpret, solve. Decision, determination, con¬ 
clusion, resolution, firmness. (Vacillation.) Declamation, oratory, elocution, 
harangue, effusion, debate. Declaration, avowal, manifestation, statement, pro¬ 
fession. Decrease, diminish, lessen, wane, decline, retrench, curtail, reduce. 
(Growth.) Dedicate, devote, consecrate, offer, set, apportion. Deed, act, action, 
commission, achievement, instrument, document, muniment. Deem, judge, esti¬ 
mate, consider, think, suppose, conceive. Deep, profound, subterranean, sub¬ 
merged, designing, abstruse, learned. (Shallow.) Deface, mar, spoil, injure, dis¬ 
figure. ^Beautify.) Default, lapse, forfeit, omission, absence, want, failure. De¬ 
fect, imperfection, flaw, fault, blemish. (Beauty, improvement.) Defend, guard, 
protect, justify. Defense, excuse, plea, vindication, bulwark, rampart. Defer, 
delay, postpone, put off, prorogue, adjourn. (Force, expedite.) Deficient, short, 
wanting, inadequate, scanty, incomplete. (Complete, perfect) Defile, v., pollute, 
corrupt, sully. (Beautify.) Define, fix, settle, determine, limit. Defray, meet, 
liquidate, pay, discharge. Degree, grade, extent, measure. Deliberate, v., con¬ 
sider, meditate, consult, ponder, debate. Deliberate, «., purposed, intentional, 
designed, determined. (Hasty.) Delicacy, nicety, dainty, refinement, tact, soft¬ 
ness, modesty. (Boorishness, indelicacy.) Delicate, tender, fragile, dainty, re¬ 
fined. (Coarse.) Delicious, sweet, palatable. (Nauseous.) Delight, enjoy¬ 
ment, pleasure, happiness, transport, ecstacy, gladness, rapture, bliss. (Annoy¬ 
ance.) Deliver, liberate, free, rescue, pronounce, give, hand over. (Retain.) 
Demonstrate, prove, show, exhibit, illustrate. Depart, leave, quit, decamp, re¬ 
tire, withdraw, vanish. (Remain.) Deprive, strip, bereave, despoil, rob, divest. 
Depute, appoint, commission, charge, intrust, delegate, authorize, accredit. De¬ 
rision, scorn, contempt, contumely, disrespect. Derivation, origin, source, be¬ 
ginning, cause, etymology, root. Describe, delineate, portray, explain, illustrate, 
define, picture. Desecrate, profane, secularize, misuse, abuse, pollute. (Keep 
holy.) Deserve, merit, earn, justify, win Design, n., delineation, sketch, 
drawing, cunning, artfulness, contrivance. Desirable, expedient, advisable, val¬ 
uable, acceptable, proper, judicious, beneficial, profitable, good. Desire, n., 
longing, affection, craving. Desist, cease, stop, discontinue, drop, abstain, for- 
bare. (Continue, persevere.) Desolate, bereaved, forlorn, forsaken, deserted, 
wild, waste, bare, bleak, lonely. (Pleasant, happy.) Desperate, wild, daring, 
audacious, determined, reckless. Despised. Destiny, fate, decree, doom, end. 
Destructive, detrimental, hurtful, noxious, injurious, deleterious, baleful, bane¬ 
ful, subversive. (Creative, constructive.) Desuetude, disuse, discontinuance. 
(Maintenance.) Desultory, rambling, discursive, loose, unmethodical, superficial, 
unsettled, erratic, fitful. (Thorough.) Detail, n., particular, specification, minu¬ 
tiae. Detail, v., particularize, enumerate, specify. (Generalize.) Deter, warn, 
stop, dissuade, terrify, scare. (Encourage.) Detriment, loss, harm, injury, deter¬ 
ioration. (Benefit.) Develop, unfold, amplify, expand, enlarge Device, artifice, 
expedient, contrivance. Devoid, void, wanting, destitute, unendowed, unprovided. 
(Full, complete.) Devoted, attached, fond, absorbed, dedicated. Dictate, 
prompt, suggest, enjoin, order, command. Dictatorial, imperative, imperious, 
domineering, arbitrary, tyrannical, overbearing. (Submissive.) Die, expire, de¬ 
part, perish, decline, languish, wane, sick, fade, decay. Diet, food, victuals, 
nourishment, nutriment, sustenance, fare. Difference, separation, disagreement, 
discord, dissent, estrangement, variety. Different, various, manifold, diverse, 
unlike, separate, distinct. (Similar, homogeneous.) Difficult, hard, intricate, in¬ 
volved, perplexing, obscure, unmanageable. (Easy.) Diffuse, discursive, prolix, 

47 


STNONl'MS AND AN TON TMS. 

diluted, copious. Dignify, aggrandize, elevate, invest, exalt, advance, promote, 
honor. (Degrade.) Dilate, stretch, widen, expand, swell, distend, enlarge, descant, 
expatiate. Dilatory, tardy, procrastinating, behindhand, lagging, dawdling. 
(Prompt.) Diligence, care, assiduity, attention, heed, industry. (Negligence.) 
Diminish, lessen, reduce, contract, curtail, retrench. (Increase.) Disability, un¬ 
fitness, incapacity. Discern, descry, observe, recognize, see, discriminate, separ¬ 
ate, perceive. Discipline, order, strictness, training, coercion, punishment, 
organization. (Confusion, demoralization. Discover, make known, find, invent, 
contrive, expose, reveal. Discreditable, shameful, disgraceful, scandalous, dis¬ 
reputable. (Creditable.) Discreet, cautious, prudent, wary, judicious. (Indiscreet.) 
Discrepancy, disagreement, difference, variance. (Agreement.) Discrimina¬ 
tion, acuteness, discernment, judgment, caution. Disease, complaint, malady, dis¬ 
order, ailment, sickness. Disgrace, n., disrepute, reproach, dishonor, shame, 
odium. (Honor.) Disgrace, v., debase, degrade, defame, discredit. (Exalt.) 
Disgust, dislike, distaste, loathing, abomination, abhorrence. (Admiration.) Dis¬ 
honest, unjust, fraudulent, unfair, deceitful, cheating, deceptive, wrongful. 
(Honest.) Dismay, v., terrify, frighten, scare, daunt, appall, dishearten. (En¬ 
courage.) Dismay, n., terror, dread, fear, fright. (Assurance ) Dismiss, send 
off, discharge, discard, banish. (Retain.) Dispel, scatter, drive away, disperse, 
dissipate. (Collect.) Display, show, spread out, exhibit, expose. (Hide.) Dis¬ 
pose, arrange, place, order, give, bestow. Dispute, v., argue, contest, contend, 
question, impugn. (Assent ) Dispute, n., argument, debate, controversy, quarrel, 
disagreement. (Harmony.) Dissent, disagree, differ, vary. (Assent) Distinct, 
clear, plain, obvious, different, separate. (Obscure, indistinct.) Distinguish, 
perceive, discern, mark out, divide, discriminate. Distinguished, famous, glor¬ 
ious, far-famed, noted, illustrious, emi_p«nt, celebrated. (Obscure, unknown, ordin¬ 
ary.) Distract, perplex, bewilder. (Calm, concentrate.) Distribute, allot, 
share, dispense, apportion, deal. (Collect.) Disturb, derange, discompose, agi¬ 
tate, rouse, interrupt, confuse, annoy, trouble, vex, worry. (Pacify, quiet.) Dis¬ 
use, discontinuance, abolition, desuetude. (Use.) Divide, part, separate, dis¬ 
tribute, deal out, sever, sunder. Divine, godlike, holy, heavenly, sacred, a par¬ 
son, clergyman, minister. Do, effect, make, perform, accomplish, finished, trans¬ 
act. DociI, tractable, teachable, compliant, tame. (Stubborn.) Doctrine, tenet, 
articles of belief, creed, dogma, teaching. Doleful, dolorous, woe-begone, rueful, 
dismal, piteous. (Joyous.) Doom, n., sentence, verdict, judgment, fate, lot, des¬ 
tiny. Doubt, n., uncertainty, suspense, hesitation, scruple, ambiguity. (Cer¬ 
tainty.) Draw, pull, haul, drag, attract, inhale, sketch, describe. Dread, n., 
fear, horror, terror, alarm, dismay, awe. (Boldness, assurance.) Dreadful, fear¬ 
ful, frightful, shocking, awful, horrible, horrid, terrific. Dress, n., clothing, at¬ 
tire, apparel, garments, costume, garb, livery. Drift, purpose, meaning, scope, 
aim, tendency, direction. Droll, funny, laughable, comic, whimsical, queer, 
amusing. (Solemn.) Drown, inundate, swamp, submerge, overwhelm, engulf. 
Dry, a., arid, parched, lifeless, dull, tedious, uninteresting, meagre. (Moist, in¬ 
teresting, succulent.) Due, owing to, attributable to, just, fair, proper, debt, right. 
Dull, stupid, gloomy, sad, dismal, commonplace. (Bright.) Dunce, simpleton, 
fool, ninny, idiot. (Sage.) Durable, lasting, permanent, abiding, continuing. 
(Ephemeral, perishable.) Dwell, stay, stop, abide, sojourn, linger, tarry. Dwin¬ 
dle, pine, waste, diminish, decrease, fall off. (Grow.) 

EAGER, hot, ardent, impassioned, forward, impatient. (Diffident.) Earn, ac¬ 
quire, obtain, win, gain, achieve. Earnest, a., ardent, serious, grave, solemn, 
warm. (Trifling.) Earnest, n., pledge, pawn. Ease, n., comfort, rest. (Worry.) 
Ease, v., calm, alleviate, allay, mitigate, appease, assuage, pacify, disburden, rid, 
(Annoy, worry.) Easy, light, comfortable, unconstrained. (Difficult, hard.) 
Eccentric, irregular, anomalous, singular, odd, abnormal, wayward, particular, 
strange. (Regular, ordinary.) Economical, sparing, saving, provident, thrifty, 
frugal, careful, niggardly. (Wasteful.) Edge, border, brink, rim, brim, margin, 
verge. Efface, blot out, expunge, obliterate, wipe out, cancel, erase. Effect, n., 
consequence, result, issue, event, execution, operation. Effect, v., accomplish, 
fulfill, realize, achieve, execute, operate, complete. Effective, efficient, operative, 
serviceable. (Vain, ineffectual.) Efficacy, efficiency, energy, agency, instrumen- 

48 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


tality. Efficient, effectual, effective, competent, capable, able, fitted. Elimi¬ 
nate, drive out, expel, thrust out, eject, cast out, oust, dislodge, banish, proscribe. 
Eloquence, oratory, rhetoric, declamation. Elucidate, make plain, explain, 
clear up, illustrate. Elude, evade, escape, avoid, shun. Embarrass, perplex, 
entangle, distress, trouble. (Assist.) Embellish, adorn, decorate, bedeck, 
beautify, deck. (Disfigure.) Embolden, inspirit, animate, encourage, cheer, 
urge, impel, stimulate. (Discourage.) Eminent, distinguished, signal, conspicuous, 
noted, prominent, elevated, renowned, famous, glorious, illustrious. (Obscure, un¬ 
known.) Emit, give out, throw out, exhale, discharge, vent. Emotion, perturba¬ 
tion, agitation, trepidation, tremor, mental conflict. Employ, occupy, busy, take 
up with, engross. Employment, business, avocation, engagement, office, function, 
trade, profession, occupation, calling, vocation. Encompass, v., encircle, sur¬ 
round, gird, beset. Encounter, attack, conflict, combat, assault, onset, engage¬ 
ment, battle, action. Encourage, countenance, sanction, support, foster, cherish, 
inspirit, embolden, animate, cheer, incite, urge, impel, stimulate. (Deter.) End, 
n., aim, object, purpose, result, conclusion, upshot, close, expiration, termination, 
extremity, sequel. Endeavor, attempt, try, essay, strive, aim. Endurance, 
continuation, duration, fortitude, patience, resignation. Endure, v., last, con¬ 
tinue, support, bear, sustain, suffer, brook, submit to, undergo. (Perish.) Enemy, 
foe, antagonist, adversary, opponent. (Friend.) Energetic, industrious, effec¬ 
tual, efficacious, powerful, binding, stringent, forcible, nervous. (Lazy.) Engage, 
employ, busy, occupy, attract, invite, allure, entertain, engross, take up, enlist. 
Engross, absorb, take up, busy, occupy, engage, monopolize. Engulf, swallow 
up, absorb, imbibe, drown, submerge, bury, entomb, overwhelm. Enjoin, order, 
ordain, appoint, prescribe. Enjoyment, pleasure, gratification. (Grief, sorrow, 
sadness.) Enlarge, increase, extend, augment, broaden, swell. (Diminish.) 
Enlighten, illumine, illuminate, instruct, inform. (Befog, becloud.) Enliven, 
cheer, vivify, stir up, animate, inspire, exhilarate. (Sadden, quiet.) Enmity, ani¬ 
mosity, hostility, ill-will, maliciousness. (Friendship ) Enormous, gigantic, co¬ 
lossal, huge, vast, immense, prodigious. (Insignificant.) Enough, sufficient, 
plenty, abundance. (Want.) Enraged, infuriated, raging, wrathful. (Pacified.) 
Enrapture, enchant, fascinate, charm, captivate, bewitch. (Repel.) Enroll, en¬ 
list, list, register*,record. Enterprise, undertaking, endeavor, venture, energy. 
Enthusiasm, earnest, devotion, zeal, ardor. (Ennui, lukewarmness.) Enthu¬ 
siast, fanatic, visionary. Equal, equable, even, like, alike, uniform. (Un¬ 
equal.) Eradicate, root out, extirpate, exterminate. Erroneous, incorrect, 
inaccurate, inexact. (Exact.) Error, blunder, mistake. (Truth.) Especially, 
chiefly, particularly, principally. (Generally.) Essay, dissertation, tract, treatise. 
Establish, build up, confirm. (Overthrow.) Esteem, regard, respect. (Con¬ 
tempt.) Estimate, appraise, appreciate, esteem, compute, rate. Estrangement, 
abstraction, alienation. Eternal, endless, everlasting. (Finite.) Evade, equivo¬ 
cate, prevaricate. Even, level, plain, smooth. (Uneven.) Event, accident, ad¬ 
venture, incident, occurrence. Evil, ill, harm, mischief, misfortune. (Good.) 
Exact, nice, particular, punctual. (Inexact) Exalt, ennoble, dignify, raise. 
(Humble.) Examination, investigation, inquiry, research, search, scrutiny. Ex¬ 
ceed, excel, outdo, surpass, transcend. (Fall Short.) Exceptional, uncommon, 
rare, extraordinary. (Common.) Excite, awaken, provoke, rouse, stir up. (Lull.) 
Excursion, jaunt, ramble, tour, trip. Execute, fulfill, perform. Exempt, free, 
cleared. (Subject.) Exercise, practice. Exhaustive, thorough, complete. 
(Cursory.) Exigency, emergency. Experiment, proof, trial, test. Explain, 
expound, interpret, illustrate, elucidate. Express, declare, signify, utter, tell. 
Extend, reach, stretch. (Abridge.) Extravagant, lavish, profuse, prodigal. 
(Parsimonious.) 

FABLE, apologue, novel, romance, tale. Face, visage, countenance. Face¬ 
tious, pleasant, jocular, jocose. (Serious.) Factor, agent. Fail, to fall short, be 
deficient. (Accomplish.) Faint, languid. (Forcible.) Fair, clear. (Stormy.) 
Fair, equitable, honest, reasonable. (Unfair.) Faith, creed. (Unbelief, infidelity.) 
Faithful, true, loyal, constant. (Faithless.) Faithless, perfidious, treacherous, 
(Faithful.) Fall, drop, droop, sink, tumble. (Rise.) Fame, renown, reputation. 
Famous, celebrated, renowned, illustrious. (Obscure.) Fanciful, capricious, 
fantastical, whimsical. Fancy, imagination. Fast, rapid, quick, fleet, expedi- 

49 


STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. 

tious. (Slow.) Fatigue, weariness, lassitude. (Vigor.) Fear, timidity, timor¬ 
ousness. (Bravery.) Feeling, sensation, sense. Feeling, sensibility, suscepti¬ 
bility. (Insensibility.) Ferocious, fierce, savage, wild, barbarous. (Mild.) 
Fertile, fruitful, prolific, plenteous, productive. (Sterile.) Fiction, falsehood, 
fabrication. (Fact.) Figure, allegory, emblem, metaphor, symbol, type Find, 
find out, descry, discover, espy. (Lose, overlook.) Fine, a., delicate, nice. 
(Coarse.) Fine, forfeit, forfeiture, mulct, penalty. Fire, glow, heat, warmth. Firm, 
constant, solid, steadfast, fixed, stable. (Weak.) First, foremost, earliest. (Last.) 
Fit, accommodate, adapt; adjust, suit. Fix, determine, establish, settle, limit. 
Flame, blaze, flare, flash, glare. Flat, level, even. Flexible, pliant, pliable, 
ductile, supple. (Inflexible.) Flourish, prosper, thrive. (Decay.) Fluctuating, 
wavering, hesitating, oscillating, vacillating, change. (Firm, steadfast, decided.) 
Fluent, flowing, glib, voluble, unembarrassed, ready. (Hesitating.) Folks, per¬ 
sons, people, individuals. Follow, succeed, ensue, imitate, copy, pursue. Fol¬ 
lower, partisan, disciple, adherent, retainer, pursurer, successor. Folly, silliness, 
foolishness, imbecility, weakness. (Wisdom.) Fond, enamored, attached, affec¬ 
tionate. (Distant.) Fondness, affection, attachment, kindness, love. (Aversion.) 
Foolhardy, venturesome, incautious, hasty, adventurous, rash. (Cautious.) Fool¬ 
ish, simple, silly, irrational, brainless, imbecile, crazy, absurd, preposterous, ridicu¬ 
lous, nonsensical. (Wise, discreet.) Fop, dandy, dude, beau, coxcomb, puppy, 
jackanapes. (Gentlemen.) Forbear, abstain, refrain, withhold. Force, n., 
strength, vigor, dint, might, energy, power, violence, army, host. Force, v., com¬ 
pel. (Persuade.) Forecast, forethought, foresight, premeditation, prognostica¬ 
tion. Forego, quit, relinquish, let go, waive. Foregoing, antecedent, anterior, 
preceding, previous, prior, former. Forerunner, herald, harbinger, precursor, 
omen. Foresight, forethought, forecast, premeditation. Forge, coin, invent, 
frame, feign, fabricate, counterfeit. Forgive, pardon, remit, absolve, acquit, ex¬ 
cuse, except. Forlorn, forsaken, abandoned, deserted, desolate, lone, lonesome. 
Form, n., ceremony, solemnity, observance, rite, figure, shape, conformation, 
fashion, appearance, representation, semblance. Form, v., make, create, produce, 
constitute, arrange, fashion, mould, shape. Formal, ceremonious, precise, exact, 
stiff, methodical, affected. (Informal, natural.) Former, antecedent, anterior, 
previous, prior, preceding, foregoing. Forsaken, abandoned, forlorn, deserted, 
desolate, lone, lonesome. Forthwith, immediately, directly, instantly, instantane¬ 
ously. (Anon.) Fortitude, endurance, resolution, fearlessness, dauntlessness. 
(Weakness.) Fortunate, lucky, happy, auspicious, prosperous, successful. (Un¬ 
fortunate.) Fortune, chance, fate, luck, doom, destiny, property, possession, 
riches. Foster, cherish, nurse, tend, harbor, nurture. (Neglect.) Foul, im¬ 
pure, nasty, filthy, dirty, unclean, defiled. (Pure, clean.) Fractious, cross, 
captious, petulant, touchy, testy, peevish, fretful, splenetic. (Tractable.) Fragile, 
brittle, frail, delicate, feeble. (Strong.) Fragments, pieces, scraps, chips, leav¬ 
ings, remains, remnants. Frailty, weakness, failing, foible, imperfection, fault, 
blemish. (Strength.) Frame, v., construct, invent, coin, fabricate, forge, mold, 
feign, make, compose. Franchise, right, exemption, immunity, privilege, free¬ 
dom, suffrage. Frank, artless, candid, sincere, free, easy, familiar, open, ingenu¬ 
ous, plain. (Tricky, insincere.) Frantic, distracted, mad, furious, raving, frenzied. 
(Quiet, subdued.) Fraud, deceit, deception, duplicity, guile, cheat, imposition. 
(Honesty.) Freak, fancy, humor, vagary, whim, caprice, crotchet. (Purpose, 
resolution.) Free, a., liberal, generous, bountiful, bounteous, munificent, frank, 
artless, candid, familiar, open, independent, unconfined, unreserved, unrestricted, 
exempt, clear, loose, easy, careless. (Slavish, stingy, artful, costly.) Free, v., 
release, set free, deliver, rescue, liberate, enfranchise, affranchise, emancipate, 
exempt. (Enslave, bind.) Freedom, liberty, independence, unrestraint, famili- 
arity, license, franchise, exemption, privilege. (Slavery.) Frequent, often, com¬ 
mon, usual, general. (Rare.) Fret, gall, chafe, agitate, irritate, vex. Friendly, 
amicable, social, sociable. (Distant, reserved, cool.) Frightful, fearful, dreadful, 
dire, direful, terrific, awful, horrible, horrid. Frivolous, trifling, trivial, petty. 
(Serious, earnest.) Frugal, provident, economical, saving. (Wasteful, extrava¬ 
gant.) Fruitful, fertile, prolific, productive, abundant, plentiful, plenteous. (Bar¬ 
ren, sterile.) Fruitless, vain, useless, idle, abortive, bootless, unavailing, without 
avail. Frustrate, defeat, foil, balk, disappoint. Fulfill, accomplish, effect, 

50 


STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS . 


complete. Fully, completely, abundantly, perfectly. Fulsome, coarse, gross, 
sickening, offensive, rank. (Moderate.) Furious, violent, boisterous, vehement, 
dashing, sweeping, rolling, impetuous, frantic, distracted, stormy, angry, raging, 
fierce. (Calm.) Futile, trifling, trivial, frivolous, useless. (Effective.) 

GAIN, n., profit, emolument, advantage, benefit, winnings, earnings. (Loss.) 
Gain, v., get, acquire, obtain, attain, procure, earn, win, achieve, reap, realize, 
reach. (Lose.) Gallant, brave, bold, courageous, gay, fine, showy, intrepid, fear¬ 
less, heroic. Galling, chafing, irritating, vexing. (Soothing.) Game, play, 
pastime, diversion, sport, amusement. Gang, band, horde, company, troop, crew. 
Gap, breach, charm, hollow, cavity cleft, crevice, rift, chink. Garnish, embel¬ 
lish, adorn, beautify, deck, decorate. Gather, pick, cull, assemble, muster, infer, 
collect. (Scatter.) Gaudy, showy, flashy, tawdry, gay, glittering, bespangled. 
(Sombre.) Gaunt, emaciated, scraggy, skinny, meagre, lank, attenuated, spare, 
lean, thin. (Well-fed.) Gay, cheerful, merry, lively, jolly, sprightly, blithe. 
(Solemn ) Generate, form, make, beget, produce. Generation, formation, race, 
breed, stock, kind, age, era. Generous, beneficent, noble, honorable, bountiful, 
liberal, free. (Niggardly.) Genial, cordial, hearty, festive, joyous. (Distant, 
cold.) Genius, intellect, invention, talent, taste, nature, character, adept. Gen¬ 
teel, refined, polished, fashionable, polite, well-bred. (Boorish.) Gentle, placid, 
mild, bland, meek, tame, docile. (Rough, uncouth.) Genuine, real, true, un¬ 
affected, sincere. (False.) Gesture, attitude, action, posture. Get, obtain, earn, 
gain, attain, procure, achieve. Ghastly, pallid, wan, hideous, grim, shocking. 
Ghost, spectre, sprite, apparition, shade, phantom. Gibe, scoff, sneer, flout, jeer, 
mock, taunt, deride. Giddy, unsteady, flighty, thoughtless. (Steady.) Gift, 
donation, benefaction, grant, alms, gratuity, boon, present, faculty, talent. (Pur¬ 
chase.) Gigantic, colossal, huge, enormous, vast, prodigious, immense. (Diminu¬ 
tive.) Give, grant, bestow, confer, yield, impart. Glad, pleased, cheerful, joyful, 
gladsome, gratified, cheering. (Sad.) Gleam, glimmer, glance, glitter, shine, 
flash. Glee, gayety, merriment, mirth, jovialty, jovialness, catch. (Sorrow.) 
Glide, slip, slide, run, roll on. Glimmer, v., gleam, flicker, glitter. Glimpse, 
glance, look, glint. Glitter, gleam, shine, glisten, glister, radiate. Gloom, cloud, 
darkness, dimness, blackness, dulness, sadness. (Light, brightness, joy.) Gloomy, 
lowering, lurid, dim, dusky, sad, glum. (Bright, clear.) Glorify, magnify, cele¬ 
brate, adore, exalt. Glorious, famous, renowned, distinguished, noble, exalted. 
(Infamous.) Glory, honor, fame, renown, splendor, grandeur. (Infamy.) Glut, 
gorge, stuff, cram, cloy, satiate, block up. Go, depart, proceed, move, budge, stir. 
God, creator, lord, almighty, jehovah, omnipotence, providence. Godly, right¬ 
eous, devout, holy, pious, religious. Good, benefit, weal, advantage, profit, boon. 
(Evil.) Good, «., virtuous, righteous, upright, just, true. (Wicked, bad.) Gorge, 
glut, fill, cram, stuff, satiate. Gorgeous, superb, grand, magnificent, splendid. 
(Plain, simple.) Govern, rule, direct, manage, command. Government, rule, 
state, control, sway. Graceful, becoming, comely, elegant, beautiful. (Awk¬ 
ward.) Gracious, merciful, kindly, beneficent. Gradual, slow, progressive. 
(Sudden.) Grand, majestic, stately, dignified, lofty, elevated, exalted, splendid, 
gorgeous, superb, magnificent, sublime, pompous. (Shabby.) Grant, bestow, im¬ 
part, give, yield, cede, allow, confer, invest. Grant, gift, boon, donation. Graph¬ 
ic, forcible, telling, picturesque, vivid, pictorial. Grasp, catch, seize, gripe, 
clasp, grapple. Grateful, agreeable, pleasing, welcome, thankful. (Harsh.) 
Gratification, enjoyment, pleasure, delight, reward. (Disappointment.) Grave, 
a., serious, sedate, solemn, sober, pressing, heavy. (Giddy.) Grave, s., tomb, 
sepulchre, vault. Great, big, huge, large, majestic, vast, grand, noble, august. 
(Small ) Greediness, avidity, eagerness, voracity. (Generosity.) Grief, afflic¬ 
tion, sorrow, trial, woe, tribulation. (Joy.) Grieve, mourn, lament, sorrow, pam, 
hurt, wound, bewail. (Rejoice.) Grievous, painful, afflicting, heavy, baleful, 
unhappy. Grind, crush, oppress, grate, harass, afflict. Grisly, terrible, hideous, 
grim, ghastly, dreadful. (Pleasing.) Gross, coarse, outrageous, unseemly, 
shameful indelicate. (Delicate.) Group, assembly, cluster, collection, clump, 
order class. Grovel, crawl, cringe, fawn, sneak. Grow, increase, vegetate, ex¬ 
pand ’ advance. (Decay, diminution.) Growl, grumble, snarl, murmur, complain. 
Grudge, malice, rancor, spite, pique, hatred, aversion. Gruff, rough, rugged, 

51 



STNONTMS AND A N TON VMS. 


blunt, rude, harsh, surly, bearish. (Pleasant.) Guile, deeeit, fraud. (Candor.) 
Guiltless, harmless, innocent. Guilty, culpable, sinful, criminal. 

HABIT, custom, practice. Hail, accost, address, greet, salute, welcome. Hap¬ 
piness, beatitude, blessedness, bliss, felicity. (Unhappiness.) Harbor, haven, 
port. Hard, firm, solid. (Soft.) Hard, arduous, difficult. (Easy) Harm, in¬ 
jury, hurt, wrong, infliction. (Benefit.) Harmless, safe, innocuous, innocent. 
(Hurtful.) Harsh, rough, rigorous, severe, gruff, morose. (Gentle.) Hasten, 
accelerate, despatch, expedite, speed. (Delay.) Hasty, hurried, ill-advised. 
(Deliberate.) Hateful, odious, detestable. (Lovable ) Hatred, enmity, ill-will, 
rancor. (Friendship.) Haughtiness, arrogance, pride. (Modesty.) Haughty, 
arrogant, disdainful, supercilious, proud. Hazard, risk, venture. Healthy, 
salubrious, salutary, wholesome. (Unhealthy.) Heap, accumulate, amass, pile. 
Hearty, a., cordial, sincere, warm. (Insincere.) Heavy, burdensome, ponderous, 
weighty. (Light.) Heed, care, attention. Heighten, enhance, exalt, elevate, 
raise. Heinous, atrocious, flagitious, flagrant. (Venial. ) Help, aid, assist, re¬ 
lieve, succor. (Hinder.) Heretic, sectary, sectarian, schismatic, dissenter, non¬ 
conformist. Hesitate, falter, stammer, stutter. Hideous, grim, ghastly, grisly. 
(Beautiful.) High, lofty, tall, elevated. (Deep.) Hinder, impede, obstruct, pre¬ 
vent. (Help.) Hint, allude, refer, suggest, intimate, insinuate. Hold, detain, 
keep, retain. Holiness, sanctity, piety, sacredness. Holy, devout, pious, religious. 
Homely, plain, ugly, coarse. (Beautiful.) Honesty, integrity, probity, upright¬ 
ness. (Dishonesty.) Honor, v., respect, reverence, esteem. (Dishonor.) Hope, 
confidence, expectation, trust. Hopeless, desperate. Hot, ardent, burning, fiery. 
(Cold.) However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, yet. Humble, modest, sub¬ 
missive, plain, unostentatious, simple. (Haughty.) Humble, degrade, humiliate, 
mortify, abase. (Exalt.) Humor, mood, temper. Hunt, seek, chase. Hurtful, 
noxious, pernicious. (Beneficial.) Husbandry, cultivation, tillage. Hypocrite, 
dissembler, impostor, canter. Hypothesis, theory, supposition. 

IDEA, thought, imagination. Ideal, imaginary, fancied. (Actual.) Idle, in¬ 
dolent, lazy. (Industrious.) Ignominious, shameful, scandalous, infamous. 
(Honorable.) Ignominy, shame, disgrace, obloquy, infamy, reproach. Ignorant, 
unlearned, illiterate, uninformed, uneducated. (Knowing.) Ill, n., evil, wicked¬ 
ness, misfortune, mischief, harm. (Good.) Ill, a., sick, indisposed, unwell, dis¬ 
eased. (Well.) Ill-tempered, crabbed, sour, surly, acrimonious. (Good- 
natured.) Ill-will, enmity, hatred, antipathy. (Good-will.) Illegal, unlawful, 
illicit, contraband, illegitimate. (Legal.) Illimitable, boundless, immeasurable, 
unlimited, infinite. Illiterate, unlettered, unlearned, untaught, uninstructed. 
(Learned, educated.) Illusion, fallacy, deception, phantasm. Illusory, imagin¬ 
ary, chimerical, visionary. (Real.) Illustrate, explain, elucidate, clear. Illus¬ 
trious, celebrated, noble, eminent, famous, renowned. (Obscure.) Image, 
likeness, picture, representation, effigy. Imaginary, ideal, fanciful, illusory. 
(Real.) Imagine, conceive, fancy, apprehend, think, presume. Imbecility, silli¬ 
ness, senility, dotage. Imitate, copy, ape, mimic, mock, counterfeit. Im¬ 
maculate, unspotted, spotless, unsullied, stainless. (Soiled.) Immediate, 
pressing, instant, next, proximate. Immediately, instantly, forthwith, directly, 
presently. Immense, vast, enormous, huge, prodigious, monstrous. Immunity, 
privilege, prerogative, exemption. Impair, injure, diminish, decrease. Impart, 
reveal, divulge, disclose, discover, bestow, afford. Impartial, just, equitable, un¬ 
biased. (Partial.) Impassioned, glowing, burning, fiery, vehement, intense. 
Impeach, accuse, charge, arraign, censure. Impede, hinder, retard, obstruct, 
prevent. (Help.) Impediment, obstruction, hindrance, obstacle, barrier. (Aid.) 
Impel, animate, induce, incite, instigate, embolden. (Retard.) Impending, 
imminent, threatening. Imperative, commanding, authoritative, despotic. Im¬ 
perfection, fault, blemish, defect, vice. Imperil, endanger, hazard, jeopardize. 
Imperious, commanding, dictatorial, authoritative, imperative, lordly, overbear¬ 
ing, domineering. Impertinent, intrusive, meddling, officious, rude, saucy, im¬ 
pudent, insolent. Impetuous, violent, boisterous, furious, vehement. (Calm.) 
Impious, profane, irreligious, godless. (Reverent.) Implicate, involve, en¬ 
tangle, embarrass, compromise. Imply, involve, comprise, infold, import, denote, 
signify. Importance, signification, significance, avail, consequence, weight, 

52 




S ’TN ON T MS AND ANTONYMS . 


gravity, moment. Imposing, impressive, striking, majestic, august, noble, grand. 
(Insignificant.) Impotence, weakness, incapacity, infirmity, frailty, feebleness. 
(Power.) Impotent, weak, feeble, helpless, enfeebled, nerveless, infirm. (Strong.) 
Impressive, stirring, forcible, exciting, affecting, moving. Imprison, incarcer¬ 
ate, shut up, immure, confine. (Liberate.) Imprisonment, captivity, durance. 
Improve, amend, better, mend, reform, rectify, ameliorate, apply, use, employ. 
(Deteriorate.) Improvident, careless, incautious, imprudent, prodigal, wasteful, 
reckless, rash. (Thrifty.) Impudence, assurance, impertinence, confidence, in¬ 
solence, rudeness. Impudent, saucy, brazen, bold, impertinent, forward, rude, 
insolent, immodest, shameless. Impulse, incentive, incitement, motive, instiga¬ 
tion. Impulsive, rash, hasty, forcible, violent. (Deliberate.) Imputation, 
blame, censure, reproach, charge, accusation. Inadvertency, error, oversight, 
blunder, inattention, carelessness, negligence. Incentive, motive, inducement, 
impulse. Incite, instigate, excite, provoke, stimulate, encourage, urge, impel. 
Inclination, leaning, slope, disposition, tendency, bent, bias, affection, attachment, 
wish, liking, desire. (Aversion.) Incline, v., slope, lean, slant, tend, bend, turn, 
bias, dispose. Inclose, surround, shut in, fence in, cover, wrap. Include, com¬ 
prehend, comprise, contain, embrace, take in. Incommode, annoy, plague, 
molest, disturb, inconvenience, trouble. (Accomodate.) Incompetent, incapa¬ 
ble, unable, inadequate, insufficient. (Competent.) Increase, v., extend, en¬ 
large, augment, dilate, expand, amplify, raise, enhance, aggravate, magnify, grow. 
(Diminish.) Increase, n., augmentation, accession, addition, enlargement, exten¬ 
sion. (Decrease.) Incumbent, obligatory. Indefinite, vague, uncertain, un¬ 
settled, loose, lax. (Definite.) Indicate, point out, show, mark. Indifference, 
apathy, carelessness, listlessness, insensibility. (Application, assiduity.) Indi¬ 
gence, want, neediness, penury, poverty, destitution, privation. (Affluence.) In¬ 
dignation, anger, wrath, ire, resentment. Indignity, insult, affront, outrage, 
obloquy, opprobrium, reproach, ignominy. (Honor.) Indiscriminate, promis¬ 
cuous, chance, indistinct, confused. (Select, chosen.) Indispensable, essential, 
necessary, requisite, expedient. (Unnecessary, supernumerary.) Indisputable, 
undeniable, undoubted, incontestable, indubitable, unquestionable, sure, infallible. 
Indorse, ratify, confirm, superscribe. Indulge, foster, cherish, fondle. (Deny.) 
Ineffectual, vain, useless, unavailing, fruitless, abortive, inoperative. (Effective.) 
Inequality, disparity, disproportion, dissimilarity, unevenness. (Equality.) In¬ 
evitable, unavoidable, not to be avoided, certain. Infamous, scandalous, shame¬ 
ful, ignominious, opprobrius, disgraceful. (Honorable.) Inference, deduction, 
corollary, conclusion, consequence. Infernal, diabolical, fiendish, devilish, hellish. 
Infest, annoy, plague, harass, disturb. Infirm, weak, feeble, enfeebled. (Robust.) 
Inflame, anger, irritate, enrage, chafe, incense, nettle, aggravate, imbitter, exas¬ 
perate. (Allay, soothe.) Influence, v., bias, sway, prejudice, prepossess. Influ¬ 
ence, n., credit, favor, reputation, character, weight, authority, sway, ascendency. 
Infringe, invade, intrude, contravene, break, transgress, violate. Ingenuous, 
artless, candid, generous, open, frank, plain, sincere. (Crafty.) Inhuman, cruel, 
brutal, savage, barbarous, ruthless, merciless, ferocious. (Humane) Iniquity, 
injustice, wrong, grievance. Injure, damage, hurt, deteriorate, wrong, aggrieve, 
harm, spoil, mar, sully. (Benefit.) Injurious, hurtful, baneful, pernicious, dele¬ 
terious, noxious, prejudicial, wrongful, damaging. (Beneficial.) Injustice, wrong, 
iniquity, grievance. (Right.) Innocent, guiltless, sinless, harmless, inoffensive, 
innoxious. (Guilty.) Innocuous, harmless, safe, innocent. (Hurtful.) Inordi¬ 
nate, intemperate, irregular, disorderly, excessive, immoderate. (Moderate.) In¬ 
quiry, investigation, examination, research, scrutiny, disquisition, question, query, 
interrogation. Inquisitive, prying, peeping, curious, peering. Insane, mad, 
deranged, delirious, demented. (Sane.) Insanity, madness, mental aberration, 
lunacy, delirium. (Sanity.) Insinuate, hint, intimate, suggest, infuse, introduce, 
ingratiate. Insipid, dull, fiat, mawkish, tasteless, vapid, inanimate, lifeless. 
(Bright, sparkling.) Insolent, rude, saucy, pert, impertinent, abusive, scurrilous, 
opprobrious, insulting, offensive. Inspire, animate, exhilarate, enliven, cheer, 
breathe, inhale. Instability, mutability, fickleness, mutableness, wavering. 
(Stability, firmness.) Instigate, stir up, persuade, animate, incite, urge, stimulate, 
encourage. Instil, implant, inculcate, infuse, insinuate. Instruct, inform, 
teach, educate, enlighten, initiate. Instrumental, conducive, assistant, helping, 

53 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


ministerial. Insufficiency, inadequacy, incompetency, incapability, deficiency, 
lack. Insult, affront, outrage, indignity, blasphemy. (Honor.) Insulting, in¬ 
solent, rude, saucy, impertinent, impudent, abusive. Integrity, uprightness, hon¬ 
esty, probity, entirety, entireness, completeness, rectitude, purity. (Dishonesty.) 
Intellect, understanding, sense, brains, mind, intelligence, ability, talent, genius. 
(Body.) Intellectual, mental, ideal, metaphysical. (Brutal.) Intelligible, 
clear, obvious, plain, distinct. (Abstruse.) Intemperate, immoderate, excessive, 
drunken, nimious, inordinate. (Temperate.) Intense, ardent, earnest, glowing, 
fervid, burning, vehement. Intent, design, purpose, intention, drift, view, aim, 
purport, meaning. Intercourse, commerce, connection, intimacy, acquaintance. 
Interdict, forbid, prohibit, inhibit, proscribe, debar, restrain from. (Allow.) In¬ 
terfere, meddle, intermeddle, interpose. Interminable, endless, interminate, 
infinite, unlimited, illimitable, boundless, limitless. (Brief, concise.) Interpose, 
intercede, arbitrate, mediate, interfere, meddle. Interpret, explain, expound, 
elucidate, unfold, decipher. Intimate, hint, suggest, insinuate, express, signify, 
impart, tell. Intimidate, dishearten, alarm, frighten, scare, appal, daunt, cow, 
browbeat. (Encourage.) Intolerable, insufferable, unbearable, insupportable, 
unendurable. Intrepid, bold, brave, daring, fearless, dauntless, undaunted, 
courageous, valorous, valiant, heroic, gallant, chivalrous, doughty. (Cowardly, 
faint-hearted.) Intrigue, plot, cabal, conspiracy, combination, artifice, ruse, 
amour. Intrinsic, real, true, genuine, sterling, native, natural. (Extrinsic.) In¬ 
validate, quash, cancel, overthrow, vacate, nullify, annul. Invasion, incursion, 
irruption, inroad, aggression, raid, fray. Invective, abuse, reproach, railing, cen¬ 
sure, sarcasm, satire. Invent, devise, contrive, frame, find out, discover, design. 
Investigation, examination, search, inquiry, research, scrutiny. Inveterate, 
confirmed, chronic, malignant. (Inchoate.) Invidious, envious, hateful, odious, 
malignant. Invigorate, brace, harden, nerve, strengthen, fortify. (Enervate.) 
Invincible, unconquerable, impregnable, insurmountable. Invisible, unseen, 
imperceptible, impalpable, unperceivable. Invite, ask, call, bid, request, allure, 
attract, solicit. Invoke, invocate, call upon, appeal, refer, implore, beseech. In¬ 
volve, implicate, entangle, compromise, envelop. Irksome, wearisome, tiresome, 
tedious, annoying. (Pleasant.) Irony, sarcasm, satire, ridicule, raillery. Irra¬ 
tional, foolish, silly, imbecile, brutish, absurd, ridiculous. (Rational.) Irregu¬ 
lar, eccentric, anomalous, inordinate, intemperate. (Regular.) Irreligious, 
profane, godless, impious, sacrilegious, desecrating. Irreproachable, blameless, 
spotless, irreprovable. Irresistible, resistless, irrepressible. Irresolute, waver¬ 
ing, undetermined, undecided, vacillating. (Determined.) Irritable, excitable, 
irascible, susceptible, sensitive. (Calm.) Irritate, aggravate, worry, embitter, 
madden, exasperate. Issue, v ., emerge, rise, proceed, flow, spring, emanate. 
Issue, »., end, upshot, effect, result, offspring, progeny. 

JADE, harass, weary, tire, \yorry. Jangle, wrangle, conflict, disagree. Jar¬ 
ring, conflicting, discordant, inconsonant, inconsistent. Jaunt, ramble, excur¬ 
sion, trip. Jealousy, suspicion, envy. Jeopard, hazard, peril, endanger. 
Jest, joke, sport, divert, make game of. Journey, travel, tour, passage. Joy, 
gladness, mirth, delight. (Grief.) Judge, justice, referee, arbitrator. Joyful, 
glad, rejoicing, exultant. (Mournful.) Judgment, discernment, discrimination, 
understanding. Justice, equity, right. Justice is right as established by law; 
equity according to the circumstances of each particular case. (Injustice.) Just¬ 
ness, accuracy, correctness, precision. 

KEEP, preserve, save. (Abandon.) Kill, assassinate, murder, slay. Kindred, 
affinity, consanguinity, relationship. Knowledge, erudition, learning, science. 
(Ignorance.) 

LABOR, toil, work, effort, drudgery. (Idleness.) Lack, need, deficiency, 
scarcity, insufficiency.. (Plenty.) Lament, mourn, grieve, weep. (Rejoice.) 
Language, dialect, idiom, speech, tongue. Lascivious, loose, unchaste, lustful 
lewd, lecherous. (Chaste.) Last, final, latest, ultimate. (First.) Laudable 
commendable, praiseworthy. (Blamable.) Laughable, comical, droll, ludicrous! 
benous) Lawful, legal, legitimate, licit. (Illegal.) Lead, conduct, guide, 
follow.) Lean, meagre. (Fat.) Learned, erudite, scholarly. (Ignorant.) 
Leave, v., quit, relinquish. Leave, n., liberty, permission, licence. (Prohibition.) 


STNONTMS AND ANT ON VMS. 


Life, existence, animation, spirit, vivacity. (Death.) Lifeless, dead, inanimate. 
Lift, erect, elevate, exalt, raise. (Lower.) Light, clear, bright. (Dark.) Light¬ 
ness, flightiness, giddiness, levity, volatility. (Seriousness ) Likeness, resem¬ 
blance, similarity. (Unlikeness.) Linger, lag, loiter, tarry, saunter. (Hasten.) 
Little, diminutive, small. (Great ) Livelihood, living, maintenance, subsistence, 
support. Lively, jocund, merry, sportive, sprightly, vivacious. (Slow, languid, 
sluggish.) Long, extended, extensive. (Short.) Look, appear, seem. Lose, 
miss, forfeit. (Gain.) Loss, detriment, damage, deprivation. (Gain.) Loud, 
clamorous, high-sounding, noisy. (Low, quiet) Love, affection, (Hatred.) Low, 
abject, mean. (Noble.) Lunacy, derangement, insanity, mania, madness. 
(Sanity.) Lustre, brightness, brilliancy, splendor. Luxuriant, exuberant. 
(Sparse.) 

MACHINATION, plot, intrigue, cabal, conspiracy. (Artlessness.) Mad, 
crazy, delirious, insane, rabid, violent, frantic. (Sane, rational, quiet.) Madness, 
insanity, fury, rage, frenzy. Magisterial, august, dignified, majestic, pompous, 
stately. Make, form, create, produce. (Destroy.) Malediction, anathema, 
curse, imprecation, execration. Malevolent, malicious, virulent, malignant. 
(Benevolent.) Malice, spite, rancor, ill-feeling, grudge, animosity, ill-will. 
(Benignity.) Malicious, see malevolent. Manacle, v., shackle, fetter, chain. 
(Free.) Manage, contrive, concert, direct. Management, direction, superin¬ 
tendence, care, economy. Mangle, tear, lacerate, mutilate, cripple, maim. 
Mania, madness, insanity, lunacy. Manifest, v., reveal, prove, evince, exhibit, 
display, show. Manifest, a., clear, plain, evident, open, apparent, visible. 
(Hidden, occult.) Manifold, several, sundry, various, divers, numerous. Manly, 
masculine, vigorous, courageous, brave, heroic. (Effeminate.) Manner, habit, 
custom, way, air, look, appearance. Manners, morals, habits, behavior, carriage. 
Mar, spoil, ruin, disfigure. (Improve.) March, tramp, tread, walk, step, space. 
Margin, edge, rim, border, brink, verge. Mark, «., sign, note, symptom, token, 
indication, trace, vestige, track, badge, brand. Mark, v., impress, print, stamp, 
engrave, note, designate. Marriage, wedding, nuptials, matrimony, wedlock. 
Martial, military, warlike, soldier-like. Marvel, wonder, miracle, prodigy. 
Marvelous, wondrous, wonderful, amazing, miraculous. Massive, bulky, heavy, 
weighty, ponderous, solid, substantial. (Flimsy.) Mastery, dominion, rule, sway, 
ascendancy, supremacy. Matchless, unrivaled, unequaled, unparalleled, peer¬ 
less, incomparable, inimitable, surpassing. (Common, ordinary.) Material, a., 
corporeal, bodily, physical, temporal, momentous, important. (Spiritual, imma¬ 
terial.) Maxim, adage, apophthegm, proverb, saying, by-word, saw. Meager, 
poor, lank, emaciated, barren, dry, uninteresting. (Rich.) Mean, a., stingy, 
niggardly, low, abject, vile, ignoble, degraded, contemptible, vulgar, despicable. 
(Generous.) Mean, v., design, purpose, intent, contemplate, signify, denote, in¬ 
dicate. Meaning, signification, import, acceptation, sense, purport. Medium, 
organ, channel, instrument, means. Medley, mixture, variety, diversity, miscel¬ 
lany. Meek, unassuming, mild, gentle. (Proud.) Melancholy, low-spirited, 
dispirited, dreamy, sad. < Jolly, buoyant.) Mellow, ripe, mature, soft. (Imma¬ 
ture.) Melodious, tuneful, musical, silver, dulcet, sweet. (Discordant.) Mem¬ 
orable, signal, distinguished, marked. Memorial, monument, memento, com¬ 
memoration. Memory, remembrance, recollection. Menace, n., threat. Mend, 
repair, amend, correct, better, ameliorate, improve, rectify. Mention, tell, name, 
communicate, impart, divulge, reveal, disclose, inform, acquaint. Merciful, com¬ 
passionate, lenient, clement, tender, gracious, kind. (Cruel.) Merciless, hard¬ 
hearted, cruel, unmerciful, pitiless, remorseless, unrelenting. (Kind.) Merri¬ 
ment, mirth, joviality, jollity, hilarity. (Sorrow.) Merry, cheerful, mirthful, joy¬ 
ous, gay, lively, sprightly, hilarious, blithe, blithesome, jovial, sportive, jolly. 
(Sad.) Metaphorical, figurative, allegorical, symbolical. Method, way, man¬ 
ner mode, process, order, rule, regularity, system. Mien, air, look, manner, as¬ 
pect, appearance. Migratory, roving, strolling, wandering, vagrant. (Settled, 
sedate, permanent.) Mimic, imitate, ape, mock. Mindful, observant, attentive, 
heedful, thoughtful. (Heedless.) Miscellaneous, promiscuous, indiscriminate, 
mixed. Mischief, injury, harm, damage, hurt, evil, ill. (Benefit.) Miscreant, 
caitiff, villain, ruffian. Miserable, unhappy, wretched, distressed, afflicted. 
(Happy.) Miserly, stingy, niggardly, avaricious, griping. Misery, wretched- 


ST NON VMS AND ANTONTMS. 


ness, woe, destitution, penury, privation, beggary. (Happiness.) Misfortune, 
calamity, disaster, mishap, catastrophe. (Good luck.) Miss, omit, lose, fail, mis¬ 
carry. Mitigate, alleviate, relieve, abate, diminish. (Aggravate.) Moderate, 
temperate, abstemious, sober, abstinent. (Immoderate.) Modest, chaste, virtu¬ 
ous, bashful, reserved. (Immodest.) Moist, wet, damp,, dank, humid. (Dry.) 
Monotonous, unvaried, dull, tiresome, undiversified. (Varied.) Monstrous, 
shocking, dreadful, horrible, huge, immense. Monument, memorial, record, re¬ 
membrancer, cenotaph. Mood, humor, disposition, vein, temper. Morbid, sick, 
ailing, sickly, diseased, corrupted. (Normal, sound.) Morose, gloomy, sullen, 
surly, fretful, crabbed, crusty. (Joyous.) Mortal, deadly, fatal, human. Mo¬ 
tion, proposition, proposal, movement. Motionless, still, stationary, torpid, stag¬ 
nant. (Active, moving.) Mount, arise, rise, ascend, soar, tower, climb, scale. 
Mournful, sad, sorrowful, lugubrious, grievous, doleful, heavy. (Happy.) Move, 
actuate, impel, induce, prompt, instigate, persuade, stir, agitate, propel, push. 
Multitude, crowd, throng, host, mob, swarm. Murder, v., kill, assassinate, slay, 
massacre, despatch. Muse, v., meditate, contemplate, think, reflect, cogitate, 
ponder. Music, harmony, melody, symphony. Musical, tuneful, melodious, 
harmonious, dulcet, sweet. Musty, stale, sour, fetid. (Fresh, sweet.) Mute, 
dumb, silent, speechless. Mutilate, maim, cripple, disable, disfigure. Muti¬ 
nous, insurgent, seditious, tumultuous, turbulent, riotous. (Obedient, orderly.) 
Mutual, reciprocal, interchanged, correlative. (Sole, solitary.) Mysterious, 
dark, obscure, hidden, secret, dim, mystic, enigmatical, unaccountable. (Open, 
clear.) Mystify, confuse, perplex, puzzle. (Clear, explain.) 

NAKED, nude, bare, uncovered, unclothed, rough, rude, simple. (Covered, 
clad.) Name, v. t denominate, entitle, style, designate, term, call, christen. 
Name, n., appellation, designation, denomination, title, cognomen, reputation, 
character, fame, credit, repute. Narrate, tell, relate, detail, recount, describe, 
enumerate, rehearse, recite. Nasty, filthy, foul, dirty, unclean, impure, indecent, 
gross, vile. Nation, people, community, realm, state. Native, indigenous, in¬ 
born, vernacular. Natural, original, regular, normal, bastard. (Unnatural, forced.) 
Near, nigh, neighboring, close, adjacent, contiguous, intimate. (Distant.) Neces¬ 
sary, needful, expedient, essential, requisite, indispensable. (Useless.) Ne¬ 
cessitate, v., compel, force, oblige. Necessity, need, occasion, exigency, emer¬ 
gency, urgency, requisite. Need, «., necessity, distress, poverty, indigence, want, 
penury. Need, v., require, want, lack. Neglect, v., disregard, slight, omit, over¬ 
look. Neglect, «., omission, failure, default, negligence, remissness, carelessness, 
slight. Neighborhood, environs, vicinity, nearness, adjacency, proximity. 
Nervous, timid, timorous, shaky. New, fresh, recent, novel. (Old.) News, 
tidings, intelligence, information. Nice, exact, accurate, good, particular, precise! 
fine, delicate. (Careless, coarse, unpleasant.) Nimble, active, brisk, lively, alert’, 
quick, agile, prompt. (Awkward.) Nobility, aristocracy, greatness, grandeur,’ 
peerage. Noble, exalted, elevated, illustrious, great, grand, lofty. (Low.) Noise’, 
cfy, outcry clamor, row, din, uproar, tumult. (Silence.) Nonsensical, irrational, 
absurd, silly, foolish. (Sensible.) Notable, plain, evident, remarkable, signal, 
striking, rare. (Obscure.) Note, s., token, symbol, mark, sign, indication, re¬ 
mark, comment. Noted, distinguished, remarkable, eminent, renowned. (Ob¬ 
scure.) Notice, s., advice, notification, intelligence, information. Notice, zc, 
mark, note, observe, attend to, regard, heed. Notify, v., publish, acquaint, ap¬ 
prise, inform, declare. Notion, conception, idea, belief, opinion, sentiment. No- 
torious, conspicuous, open, obvious, ill-famed. (Unknown.) Nourish, nurture, 
cherish, foster, supply. (Starve, famish.) Nourishment, food, diet, sustenance, 
nutrition. Novel, modern, new, fresh, recent, unused, strange, rare. (Old.) 
Noxious, hurtful, deadly, poisonous, deleterious, baneful. (Beneficial.) Nullify, 
annul, vacate, invalidate, quash, cancel, repeal. (Affirm.) Nutrition, food, diet, 
nutriment, nourishment. 

r?^ D ^ RATE ’ hard ’ callous > hardened, unfeeling, insensible. (Yielding tract¬ 
able.) Obedient, compliant, submissive, dutiful, respectful. (Obstinate) Obese, 
corpulent, fat, adipose, fleshy. (Attenuated.) Obey, w., conform, comply, submit. 
(Rebel, disobey.) Object, s., aim, end, purpose, design, mark, butt. Object v 
oppose, except to, contravene, impeach, deprecate. (Assent.) Obnoxious, offen¬ 
sive. (Agreeable.) Obscure, undistinguished, unknown. (Distinguished.) 

56 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 


Obstinate, contumacious, headstrong, stubborn, obdurate. (Yielding.) Occa¬ 
sion, opportunity. Offense, affront, misdeed, misdemeanor, transgression, tres¬ 
pass. Offensive, insolent, abusive, obnoxious. (Inoffensive.) Office, 
charge, function, place. Offspring, issue, progeny. Old, aged, superannuated, 
ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete, old-fashioned. (Young, new.) Omen, pre¬ 
sage, prognostic. Opaque, dark. (Bright, transparent.) Open, candid, unre¬ 
served, clear, fair. (Hidden, dark.) Opinion, notion, view, judgment, belief, 
sentiment. Opinionated, conceited, egoistical. (Modest.) Oppose, resist, 
withstand, thwart. (Give way.) Option, choice. Order, method, rule, system, 
regularity. (Disorder.) Origin, cause, occasion, beginning, source. (End.) 
Outlive, survive. Outward, external, outside, exterior. (Inner.) Over, above. 
(Under.) Overbalance, outweigh, preponderate. Overbear, bear down, over¬ 
whelm, overpower, subdue. Overbearing, haughty, arrogant, proud. (Gentle.) 
Overflow, inundation, deluge. Overrule, supersede, suppress. Overspread, 
overrun, ravage. Overturn, invert, overthrow, reverse, subvert. (Establish, 
fortify.) Overwhelm, crush, defeat, vanquish. 

PAIN, suffering, qualm, pang, agony, anguish. (Pleasure.) Pallid, pale, wan. 
(Florid.) Part, division, portion, share, fraction. (Whole.) Particular, exact, 
distinct, odd, singular, strange. (General.) Patient, passive, submissive, meek, 
(Obdurate.) Peace, calm, quiet, tranquillity. (War, riot, trouble, turbulence.) 
Peaceable, pacific, peaceful, quiet. (Troublesome, riotous.) Penetrate, bore, 
pierce, perforate. Penetration, acuteness, sagacity. (Dullness.) People, 
nation, persons, folks. Perceive, note, observe, discern, distinguish. Percep¬ 
tion, conception, notion, idea. Peril, danger, pitfall, snare. (Safety.) Permit, 
allow, tolerate. (Forbid.) Persuade, allure, entice, prevail Upon. Physical, 
corporeal, bodily, material. (Mental.) Picture, engraving, print, representation, 
illustration, image. Piteous, doleful, woful, rueful. (Joyful.! Pitiless, see 
merciless. Pity, compassion, sympathy. (Cruelty.) Place, n., spot, site, position, 
post, situation, station. Place, v., order, dispose. Plain, open, manifest, evi¬ 
dent. (Secret.) Play, game, sport, amusement. (Work.) Please, gratify, paci¬ 
fy. (Displease.) Pleasure, charm, delight, joy. (Pain.) Plentiful, abundant, 
ample, copious, plenteous. (Scarce.) Poise, balance. Positive, absolute, per¬ 
emptory, decided, certain. (Negative.) Possessor, owner, master, proprietor. 
Possible, practical, practicable. (Impossible.) Poverty, penury, indigence, 
need, want. (Wealth.) Power, authority, force, strength, dominion. Powerful, 
mighty, potent. (Weak.) Praise, commend, extol, laud. (Blame.) Prayer, 
entreaty, petition, request, suit. Pretense, «., pretext, subterfuge. Prevailing, 
predominant, prevalent, general. (Isolated, sporadic.) Prevent, v., obviate, pre¬ 
clude. Previous, antecedent, introductory, preparatory, preliminary. (Subse¬ 
quent.) Pride, vanity, conceit. (Humility.) Principally, chiefly, essentially, 
mainly. Principle, ground, reason, motive, impulse, maxim, rule, rectitude, in¬ 
tegrity. Privilege, immunity, advantage, favor, prerogative, exemption, right, 
claim. Probity, rectitude, uprightness, honesty, integrity, sincerity, soundness. 
(Dishonesty.) Problematical, uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, dis¬ 
putable, suspicious. (Certain.) Prodigious, huge, enormous, vast, amazing, as¬ 
tonishing, astounding, surprising, remarkable, wonderful. (Insignificant.) Pro¬ 
fession, business, trade, occupation, vocation, office, employment, engagement, 
avowal. Proffer, volunteer, offer, propose, tender. Profligate, abandoned, dis¬ 
solute, depraved, vicious, degenerate, corrupt, demoralized. (Virtuous.) Pro¬ 
found, deep, fathomless, penetrating, solemn, abstruse, recondite. (Shallow.) 
Profuse, extravagant, prodigal, lavish, improvident, excessive, copious, plentiful 
(Succinct.) Prolific, productive, generative, fertile, fruitful, teeming. (Barren.) 
Prolix, diffuse, long, prolonged, tedious, tiresome, wordy, verbose, prosaic. (y on ~ 
cise, brief.) Prominent, eminent, conspicuous, marked, important, leading. 
(Obscure.) Promiscuous, mixed, unarranged, mingled, indiscriminate. (Select.) 
Prompt, see punctual. Prop, v . 9 maintain, sustain, support, stay. Propa- 
gate, spread, circulate, diffuse, disseminate, extend, breed, increase. (Suppress ) 
Proper, legitimate, right, just, fair, equitable, honest, suitable, fit, adapted, meet, 
becoming, befitting, decent, pertinent, appropriate. (Wrong.) Prosper, flourish, 
succeed, grow rich, thrive, advance. (Fail.) Prosperity, well-being, weal wel¬ 
fare, happiness, good luck. (Poverty.) Proxy, agent, representative, substitute, 

57 


S ’TN ON TMS AND ANTONTMS. 


delegate, deputy. Prudence, carefulness, judgment, discretion, wisdom. (Indis¬ 
cretion.) Prurient, itching, craving, hankering, longing. Puerile, youthful, 
juvenile, boyish, childish, infantile, trifling, weak, silly. (Mature.) Punctilious, 
nice, particular, formal, precise. (Negligent.) Punctual, exact, precise, nice, 
particular, prompt, timely. (Dilatory.) Putrefy, rot, decompose, corrupt, decay. 
Puzzle, v., perplex, confound, embarrass, bewilder, confuse, pose, mystify. (En¬ 
lighten.) 

QUACK, impostor, pretender, charlatan, empiric, mountebank. (Savant.) 
Quaint, artful, curious, far-fetched, fanciful, odd, singular. Qualified, compe¬ 
tent, fitted, adapted. (Incompetent.) Quality, attribute, rank, distinction. 
Querulous, doubting, complaining, fretting, repining. (Patient.) Question, 
query, inquiry, interrogatory. Quibble, cavil, evade, equivocate, shuffle, prevari¬ 
cate. Quick, lively, ready, prompt, alert, nimble, agile, active, brisk, expeditious, 
adroit, fleet, rapid, swift, impetuous, sweeping, dashing, clever, sharp. (Slow.) 
Quote, note, repeat, cite, adduce. 

RABID, mad, furious, raging, frantic. (Rational.) Race, course, match, pur¬ 
suit, career, family, clan, house, ancestry, lineage, pedigree. Rack, agonize, 
wring, torture, excruciate, distress, harass. (Soothe.) Racy, spicy, pungent, 
smart, spirited, lively, vivacious. (Dull, insipid.) Radiance, splendor, bright¬ 
ness, brilliance, brilliancy, lustre, glare. (Dullness.) Radical, organic, innate, 
fundamental, original, constitutional, inherent, complete, entire. (Superficial. In 
a political sense, uncompromising; antonym, moderate.) Rancid, fetid, rank, 
stinking, sour, tainted, reasty. (Fresh, sweet.) Rancor, malignity, hatred, hos¬ 
tility, antipathy, animosity, enmity, ill-will, spite. (Forgiveness.) Rank, order, 
degree, dignity, nobility, consideration. Ransack, rummage, pillage, overhaul, 
explore, plunder. Ransom, emancipate, free, unfetter. Rant, bombast, fustian, 
cant. Rapacious, ravenous, voracious, greedy, grasping. (Generous.) Rapt, 
ecstatic, transported, ravished, entranced, charmed. (Distracted.) Rapture, 
ecstasy, transport, delight, bliss. (Dejection.) Rare, scarce, singular, uncommon, 
unique. Rascal, scoundrel, rogue, knave, scamp, vagabond. Rash, hasty, pre¬ 
cipitate, foolhardy, adventurous, heedless, reckless, careless. (Deliberate.) Rate, 
value, compute, appraise, estimate, chide, abuse. Ratify, confirm, establish, sub¬ 
stantiate, sanction. (Protest, oppose, i Rational, reasonable, sagacious, judicious, 
wise, sensible, sound. (Unreasonable.) Ravage, overrun, overspread, desolate, 
despoil, destroy. Ravish, enrapture, enchant, charm, delight, abuse. Raze, de¬ 
molish, destroy, overthrow, ruin, dismantle (Build up.) Reach, touch, stretch, 
attain, gain, arrive at. Ready, prepared, ripe, apt, prompt, adroit, handy. (Slow, 
dilatory.) Real, actual, literal, practical, positive, certain, genuine, true. (Un¬ 
real.) Realize, accomplish, achieve, effect, gain, get, acquire, comprehend. 
Reap, gain, get, acquire, obtain. Reason, motive, design, end, proof, cause, 
ground, purpose. Reason, deduce, draw from, trace, infer, conclude. Reason¬ 
able, rational, wise, honest, fair, right, just. (Unreasonable.) Rebellion, insur¬ 
rection, revolt. Recant, recall, abjure, retract, revoke. Recede, retire, retreat, 
withdraw, ebb. Receive, accept, take, admit, entertain. Reception, receiving, 
levee, receipt, admission. Recess, retreat, depth, niche, vacation, intermission. 
Recreation, sport, pastime, play, amusement, game, fun. Redeem, ransom, re¬ 
cover, rescue, deliver, save, free. Redress, remedy, repair, remission, abate¬ 
ment, relief. Reduce, abate, lessen, decrease, lower, shorten, conquer. Re¬ 
fined, polite, courtly, polished, cultured, genteel, purified. (Boorish.) Reflect, 
consider, cogitate, think, ponder, muse, censure. Reform, amend, correct, better, 
restore, improve. (Corrupt ) Reformation, improvement, reform, amendment. 
(Corruption.) Refuge, asylum, protection, harbor, shelter, retreat. Refuse, z/., 
deny, reject, repudiate, decline, withhold. (Accept.) Refuse, s., dregs, dross, 
scum, rubbish, leavings, remains. Refute, disprove, falsify, negative. (Affirm.) 
Regard, v., mind, heed, notice, behold, view, consider, respect. Regret, s., 
grief, sorrow, lamentation, repentance, remorse. Regular, orderly, uniform, cus¬ 
tomary, ordinary, stated. (Irregular.) Regulate, methodize, arrange, adjust, 
organize, govern, rule. (Disorder.) Reimburse, refund, repay, satisfy, indemni¬ 
fy. Relevant, fit, proper, suitable, appropriate, pertinent, apt. (Irrelevant.) Re¬ 
liance, trust, hope, dependence, confidence. (Suspicion.) Relief, succor, aid, 

58 



SYNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. 


help, redress, alleviation. Relinquish, give up, forsake, resign, surrender, quit, 
leave, forego. (Retain.) Remedy, help, relief, redress, cure, specific, reparation. 
Remorseless, pitiless, relentless, cruel, ruthless, merciless, barbarous. (Merciful, 
humane.) Remote, distant, far, secluded, indirect. (Near.) Reproduce, pro¬ 
pagate, imitate, represent, copy. Repudiate, disown, discord, disavow, renounce, 
disclaim. (Acknowledge.)_ Repugnant, antagonistic, distasteful. (Agreeable.) 
Repulsive, forbidding, odious, ugly, disagreeable, revolting. (Attractive.) Res¬ 
pite, reprieve, interval, stop, pause. Revenge, vengeance, retaliation, requital, 
retribution. (Forgiveness.) Revenue, produce, income, fruits, proceeds, wealth. 
Reverence, n. y honor, respect, awe, veneration, deference, worship, homage. 
(Execration.) Revise, review, reconsider. Revive, refresh, renew, renovate, 
animate, resuscitate, vivify, cheer, comfort. Rich, wealthy, affluent, opulent, 
copious, ample, abundant, exuberant, plentiful, fertile, fruitful, superb, gorgeous. 
(Poor.) Rival, n., antagonist, opponent, competitor. Road, way, highway, 
route, course, path, pathway, anchorage. Roam, ramble, rove, wander, stray, 
stroll. Robust, strong, lusty, vigorous, sinewy, stout, sturdy, stalwart, able-bodied. 
(Puny.) Rout, v., discomfit, beat, defeat, overthrow, scatter. Route, road, 
course, march, way, journey, path, direction. Rude rugged, rough, uncouth, un¬ 
polished, harsh, gruff, impertinent, saucy, flippant, impudent, insolent, churlish. 
(Polished, polite.) Rule, sway, method, system, law, maxim, precept, guide, for¬ 
mula, regulation, government, standard, test. Rumor, hearsay, talk, fame, 
report, bruit. Ruthless, cruel, savage, barbarous, inhuman, merciless, remorseless, 
relentless, unrelenting. (Considerate.) 

SACRED, holy, hallowed, divine, consecrated, dedicated, devoted. (Profane.) 
Safe, secure, harmless, trustworthy, reliable. (Perilous, dangerous.) Sanction, 
confirm, countenance, encourage, support, ratify, authorize. (Disapprove.) Sane, 
sober, lucid, sound, rational. (Crazy.) Saucy, impertinent, rude, impudent, in¬ 
solent, flippant,'forward. (Modest.) Scandalize, shock, disgust, offend, calum¬ 
niate, vilify, revile, malign, traduce, defame, slander. Scanty, bare, pinched, in¬ 
sufficient, slender, meager. (Ample.) Scatter, strew, spread, disseminate, dis¬ 
perse, dissipate, dispel. (Collect.) Secret, clandestine, concealed, hidden, sly, 
underhand, latent, private. (Open.) Seduce, allure, attract, decoy, entice, ab¬ 
duct, inveigle, deprave. Sense, discernment, appreciation, view, opinion, feeling, 
perception, sensibility, susceptibility, thought, judgment, signification, import, sig¬ 
nificance, meaning, purport, wisdom. Sensible, wise, intelligent, reasonable, 
sober, sound, conscious, aware. (Foolish.) Settle, arrange, adjust, regulate, con¬ 
clude, determine. Several, sundry, divers, various, many. Severe, harsh, 
stern, stringent, unmitigated, rough, unyielding. (Lenient.) Shake, tremble, 
shudder, shiver, quake, quiver Shallow, superficial, flimsy, slight. (Deep, 
thorough.) Shame, disgrace, dishonor. (Honor.) Shameful, degrading, scan¬ 
dalous, disgraceful, outrageous (Honorable.) Shameless, immodest, impudent, 
indecent, indelicate, brazen. Shape, form, fashion, mold, model. Share, por¬ 
tion, lot, division, quantity, quota, contingent. Sharp, acute, keen. (Dull.) 
Shine, glare, glitter, radiate, sparkle. Short, brief, concise, succinct, summary. 
(Long.) Show, v„ indicate, mark, point out, exhibit, display. Show, n., exhibi¬ 
tion, representation, sight, spectacle. Sick, diseased, sickly, unhealthy, morbid. 
(Healthy.) Sickness, n., illness, indisposition, disease, disorder. (Health.) 
Significant, a., expressive, material, important. (Insignificant.) Signification, 
import, meaning, sense. Silence, speechlessness, dumbness. (Noise.) Silent, 
dumb, mute, speechless. (Talkative.) Simile, comparison, similitude. Simple, 
single, uncompounded, artless, plain. (Complex, compound..) Simulate, dis¬ 
simulate, dissemble, pretend. Sincere, candid, hearty, honest, pure, genuine, 
real. (Insincere.) Situation, condition, plight, predicament, state, position. 
Size, bulk, greatness, magnitude, dimension. Slavery, servitude, enthrallment, 
thralldom. (Freedom.) Sleep, doze, drowse, nap, slumber. Sleepy, somnolent. 
(Wakeful.) Slow, dilatory, tardy. (Fast.) Smell, fragrance, odor, perfume, 
scent. Smooth, even, level, mild. (Rough.) Soak, drench, imbrue, steep. 
Social, sociable, friendly, communicative. (Unsocial.) Soft, gentle, meek, 
mild. (Hard.) Solicit, importune, urge. Solitary, sole, only, single. Sorry, 
grieved, poor, paltry, insignificant. (Glad, respectable.) Soul, mind, spirit. 
(Soul is opposed to body, mind to matter.) Sound, v., healthy, sane. (Unsound.) 


STNONTMS AND ANTONYMS. 

Sound, n., tone, noise, silence. Space, room. Sparse, scanty, thin. (Lux¬ 
uriant.) Speak, converse, talk, confer, say, tell. Special, particular, specific. 
(General.) Spend, expend, exhaust, consume, waste, squander, dissipate. (Save.) 
Sporadic, isolated, rare. (General, prevalent.) Spread, disperse, diffuse, ex¬ 
pand, disseminate, scatter. Spring, fountain, source. Staff, prop, support, stay. 
Stagger, reel, totter. Stain, soil, discolor, spot, sully, tarnish. State, common¬ 
wealth, realm. Sterile, barren, unfruitful. (Fertile.) Stifle, choke, suffocate, 
smother. Stormy, rough, boisterous, tempestuous. (Calm.) Straight, direct, 
right. (Crooked.) Strait, a., narrow, confined. Stranger, alien, foreigner. 
(Friend.) Strengthen, fortify, invigorate. (Weaken.) Strong, robust, sturdy, 
powerful. (Weak.) Stupid, dull, foolish, obtuse, witless. (Clever.) Subject, 
exposed to, liable, obnoxious. (Exempt.) Subject, inferior, subordinate. (Su¬ 
perior to, above.) Subsequent, succeeding, following. (Previous.) Substan¬ 
tial, solid, durable. (Unsubstantial.) Suit, accord, agree. (Disagree.) Super¬ 
ficial, flimsy, shallow, untrustworthy. (Thorough.) Superfluous, unnecessary, 
excessive. (Necessary.) Surround, encircle, encompass, environ. Sustain, 
maintain, support. Symmetry, proportion. Sympathy, commiseration, com¬ 
passion, condolence. System, method, plan, order. Systematic, orderly, regu¬ 
lar, methodical. (Chaotic.) 

TAKE, accept, receive. (Give.) Talkative, garrulous, loquacious, communi¬ 
cative. (Silent.) Taste, flavor, relish, savor. (Tastlessness.) Tax, custom, 
duty, impost, excise, toll. Tax, assessment, rate. Tease, taunt, tantalize, tor¬ 
ment, vex. Temporary, a., fleeting, transient, transitory. (Permanent.) Tena¬ 
cious, pertinacious, retentive. Tendency, aim, drift, scope. Tenet, position, 
view, conviction, belief. Term, boundary, limit, period, time. Territory, do¬ 
minion. Thankful, grateful, obliged. (Thankless.) Thankless, ungracious, 
profitless, ungrateful, unthankful. Thaw, melt, dissolve, liquefy. (Freeze.) 
Theatrical, dramatic, showy, ceremonious, meretricious. Theft, robbery, depre¬ 
dation, spoliation. Theme, subject, topic, text, essay. Theory, speculation, 
scheme, plea, hypothesis, conjecture. Therefore, accordingly, consequently, 
hence. Thick, dense, close, compact, solid, coagulated, muddy, turbid, misty, 
foggy, vaporous. (Thin.) Thin, slim, slender, slight, flimsy, lean, attenuated, 
scraggy. Think, cogitate, consider, reflect, ponder, contemplate, meditate, muse,con¬ 
ceive, fancy, imagine, apprehend, hold, esteem, reckon, consider, regard, deem, be¬ 
lieve, opine. Thorough, accurate, correct, trustworthy, reliable, complete. (Super¬ 
ficial.) Thought, idea, conception, imagination, fancy, conceit, notion, supposition, 
care, provision, consideration, opinion, view, sentiment, reflection, deliberation. 
Thoughtful, considerate, careful, cautious, heedful, contemplative, reflective, 
provident, pensive, dreamy. (Thoughtless.) Thoughtless, inconsiderate, rash, 
precipitate, improvident, heedless. Tie, v., bind, restrain, restrict, oblige, secure, 
unite, join. (Loose.) Tie, n., band, ligament, ligature. Time, duration, season, 
period, era, age, date, span, spell. Tolerate, allow, admit, receive, suffer, per¬ 
mit, let, endure, abide. (Oppose.) Top, summit, apex, head, crown, surface. 
(Bottom, base.) Torrid, burning, hot, parching, scorching, sultry. Tortuous, 
twisted, winding, crooked, indirect. Torture, torment, anguish, agony. Touch¬ 
ing, tender, affecting, moving, pathetic. Tractable, docile, manageable, amen¬ 
able. Trade, traffic, commerce, dealing, occupation, employment, office. Tra¬ 
ditional, oral, uncertain, transmitted. Traffic, trade, exchange, commerce, in¬ 
tercourse. Trammel, n., fetter, shackle, clog, bond, chain, impediment, hin¬ 
drance. Tranquil, sti 1, unrufflled, peaceful, quiet, hushed. (Noisy, boisterous.) 
Transaction, negotiation, occurrence, proceeding, affair. Trash, nonsense, 
twaddle, trifles, dross. Travel, trip, ramble, peregrination, excursion, journey, 
tour, voyage. Treacherous, traitorous, disloyal, treasonable, faithless, false¬ 
hearted, perfidious, sly, false. (Trustworthy, faithful.) Trite, stale, old, ordinary, 
commonplace, hackneyed. (Novel.) Triumph, achievement, ovation, victory, 
conquest, jubilation. (Failure, defeat.) Trivial, trifling, petty, small, frivolous, 
unimportant, insignificant. (Important.) True, genuine, actual, sincere, un¬ 
affected, true-hearted, honest, upright, veritable, real, veracious, authentic, exact, 
accurate, correct. Tumultuous, turbulent, riotous, disorderly, disturbed, con¬ 
fused, unruly. (Orderly.) Tune, tone, air, melody, strain. Turbid, foul, thick, 


STNONTMS AND ANTONTMS. 

muddy, impure, unsettled. (Placid.) Type, emblem, symbol, figure, sign, kind, 
sort, letter. Tyro, novice, beginner, learner. 

UGLY, unsightly, plain, homely, ill-favored, hideous. (Beautiful.) Umbrage, 
offence, dissatisfaction, displeasure, resentment. Umpire, referee, arbitrator, 
judge, arbiter. Unanimity, accord, agreement, unity, concord. (Discord.) 
Unanimous, agreeing, like-minded. Unbridled, wanton, licentious, dissolute, 
loose, lax. Uncertain, doubtful, dubious, questionable, fitful, equivocal, ambigu¬ 
ous, indistinct, variable, fluctuating. Uncivil, rude, discourteous, disrespectful, 
disobliging. (Civil.) Unclean, dirty, foul, filthy, sullied. (Clean.) Uncom¬ 
mon, rare, strange, scarce, singular, choice. (Common, ordinary.) Uncon¬ 
cerned, careless, indifferent, apathetic. (Anxious.) Uncouth, strange, odd, 
clumsy, ungainly. (Graceful.) Uncover, reveal, strip, expose, lay bare, divest. 
(Hide.) Under, below, underneath, beneath, subordinate, lower, inferior. 
(Above.) Understanding, knowledge, intellect, intelligence, faculty, comprehen¬ 
sion, mind, reason, brains. Undertake, engage in, embark in, agree, promise. 
Undo, annul, frustrate, untie, unfasten, destroy. Uneasy, restless, disturbed, un¬ 
quiet, stiff, awkward. (Quiet.) Unequal, uneven, not alike, irregular, insuffi¬ 
cient. (Even.) Unequaled, matchless, unique, novel, new, unheard of. Un¬ 
fair, wrongful, dishonest, unjust. (Fair.) Unfit, a., improper, unsuitable, incon¬ 
sistent, untimely, incompetent. (Fit.) Unfit, v., disable, incapacitate, disqualify. 
(Fit.) Unfortunate, calamitous, ill-fated, unlucky, wretched, unhappy, miser¬ 
able. (Fortunate.) Ungainly, clumsy, awkward, lumbering, uncouth. (Pretty.) 
Unhappy, miserable, wretched, distressed, afflicted, painful, disastrous, drear, 
dismal. (Happy.) Uniform, regular, symmetrical, equal, even, alike, unvaried. 
(Irregular.) Uninterrupted, continuous, perpetual, unceasing, incessant, end¬ 
less. (Intermittent.) Union, junction, combination, alliance, confederacy, league, 
coalition, agreement, concert. (Disunion, separation.) Unique, unequal, un¬ 
common, rare, choice, matchless. (Common, ordinary.) Unite, join, conjoin, 
combine, concert, add, attach, incorporate, embody, clench, merge. (Separate, 
disrupt, sunder.) Universal, general, all, entire, total, catholic. (Sectional.) 
L.limited, absolute, undefined, boundless, infinite. (Limited.) Unreasonable, 
foolish, silly, absurd, preposterous, ridiculous. Unrivaled, unequaled, unique, 
unexampled, incomparable, matchless. (Mediocre.) Unroll, unfold, open, dis¬ 
cover. Unruly, ungovernable, unmanageable, refractory. (Tractable, docile.) 
Unusual, rare, unwonted, singular, uncommon, remarkable, strange, extraordi¬ 
nary. (Common.) Uphold, maintain, defend, sustain, support, vindicate. (Desert, 
abandon.) Upright, vertical, perpendicular, erect, just, equitable, fair, pure, 
honorable. (Prone, horizontal.) Uprightness, honesty, integrity, fairness, good¬ 
ness, probity, virtue, honor. (Dishonesty.) Urge, incite, impel, push, drive, in¬ 
stigate, stimulate, press, induce, solicit. Urgent, pressing, important, imperative, 
immediate, serious, wanted. (Unimportant.) Usage, custom, fashion, practice, 
prescription. Use, n., usage, practice, habit, custom, avail, advantage, utility, 
benefit, application. (Disuse, desuetude.) Use, v., employ, exercise, occupy, 
practise, accustom, inure. (Abuse.) Useful, advantageous, serviceable, avail¬ 
able, helpful, beneficial, good. (Useless.) Useless, unserviceable, fruitless, idle, 
profitless. (Useful.) Usual, ordinary, common, accustomed, habitual, wonted, 
customary, general. (Unusual.) Usurp, arrogate, seize, appropriate, assume. 
Utmost, farthest, remotest, uttermost, greatest. Utter, a., extreme, excessive, 
sheer, mere, pure. Utter, v., speak, articulate, pronounce, express, issue. 
Utterly, totally, completely, wholly, quite, altogether, entirely. 

VACANT, empty, unfilled, unoccupied, thoughtless, unthinking. (Occupied.) 
Vagrant, n., wanderer, beggar, tramp, vagabond, rogue. Vague, unsettled, un¬ 
determined, uncertain, pointless, indefinite. (Definite ) Vain, useless, fruitless, 
empty, worthless, inflated, proud, conceited, unreal, unavailing. (Effectual, 
humble, real.) Valiant, brave, bold, valorous, courageous, gallant. (Cowardly.) 
Valid, weighty, strong, powerful, sound, binding, efficient. (Invalid.) Valor, 
courage, gallantry, boldness, bravery, heroism. (Cowardice.) Value, v., appraise, 
assess, reckon, appreciate, estimate, prize, esteem, treasure. (Despise, condemn.) 
Vanish, disappear, fade, melt, dissolve. Vanity, emptiness, conceit, self-conceit, 
affectedness. Vapid, dull, flat, insipid, stale, tame. (Sparkling.) Vapor, fume, 


SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS. 


smoke, mist, fog, steam. Variable, changeable, unsteady, inconstant, shifting 
wavering, fickle, restless, fitful. (Constant.) Variety, difference, diversity, 
change, diversification, mixture, medley, miscellany. (Sameness, monotony.) 
Vast, spacious, boundless, mighty, enormous, immense, colossal, gigantic, huge, 
prodigious. (Confined.) Vaunt, boast, brag, puff, hawk, advertise, flourish, 
parade. Venerable, grave, sage, wise, old, reverend. Venial, pardonable, 
excusable, justifiable. (Grave, serious.) Venom, poison, virus, spite, malice, 
malignity. Venture, «., speculation, chance, peril, stake. Venture, v., dare, 
adventure, risk, hazard, jeopardize. Veracity, truth, truthfulness, credibility, 
accuracy. (Falsehood.) Verbal, oral, spoken, literal, parole, unwritten. Verdict, 
judgment, finding, decision, answer. Vexation, chagrin, mortification. (Pleasure.) 
Vibrate, oscillate, swing, sway, wave, undulate, thrill. Vice, vileness, corruption, 
depravity, pollution, immorality, wickedness, guilt, iniquity, crime. (Virtue.) 
Vicious, corrupt, depraved, debased, bad, contrary, unruly, demoralized, profli¬ 
gate, faulty. (Virtuous, gentle.) Victim, sacrifice, food, prey, sufferer, dupe, gull. 
Victuals, viands, bread, meat, provisions, fare, food, repast. View, prospect, 
survey. Violent, boisterous, furious, impetuous, vehement. (Gentle.) Virtu¬ 
ous, upright, honest, moral. (Profligate.) Vision, apparition, ghost, phantom, 
spectre. Voluptuary, epicure, sensualist. Vote, suffrage, voice. Vouch, 
affirm, asseverate, assure, aver. 

WAIT, await, expect, look for, wait for. Wakeful, vigilant, watchful. (Sleepy.) 
Wander, range, ramble, roam, rove, stroll. Want, lack, need. (Abundance.) 
Wary, circumspect, cautious. (Foolhardy.) Wash, clean, rinse, wet, moisten, 
stain, tint. Waste, v., squander, dissipate, lavish, destroy, decay, dwindle, wither. 
Wasteful, extravagant, profligate. (Economical.) Way, method, plan, system, 
means, manner, mode, form, fashion, course, process, road, route, track, path, 
habit, practice. Wave, breaker, billow, surge. Weak, feeble, infirm. (Strong.) 
Weaken, debilitate, enfeeble, enervate, invalidate. (Strengthen.) Wearisome, 
tedious, tiresome. (Interesting, entertaining.) Weary, harass, jade, tire, fatigue. 
(Refresh.) Weight, gravity, heaviness. (Lightness ) Weight, burden, load. 
Well-being, happiness, prosperity, welfare. Whole, entire, complete, total, 
integral. (Part.) Wicked, iniquitous, nefarious. (Virtuous.) Will, wish, desire. 
Willingly, spontaneously, voluntarily. (Unwillingly.) Win, get, obtain, gain, 
procure, effect, realize, accomplish, achieve. (Lose.) Winning, attractive, 
charming, fascinating, bewitching, enchanting, dazzling, brilliant. (Repulsive.) 
Wisdom, prudence, foresight, far-sightedness, sagacity. (Foolishness.) Wit, 
humor, satire, fun, raillery. Wonder, v. , admire, amaze, astonish, surprise. 
Wonder, n., marvel, miracle, prodigy. Word, n., expression, term. Work, 
labor, task, toil. (Play.) Worthless, valueless. (Valuable.) Writer, author, 
penman. Wrong, injustice, injury. (Right.) 

YAWN, gape, open wide. Yearn, hanker after, long for, desire, crave. Yell, 
bellow, cry out, scream. Yellow, golden, saffron-like. Yelp, bark, sharp cry, 
howl. Yet, besides, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however, still, ultimately, at 
last, so far, thus far. Yield, bear, give, afford, impart, communicate, confer, 
bestow, abdicate, resign, cede, surrender, relinquish, relax, quit, forego, give up, 
let go, waive, comply, accede, assent, acquiesce, succumb, submit. Yielding, 
supple, pliant, bending, compliant, submissive, unresisting. (Obstinate.) Yoke, 
v., couple, link, connect. Yore, long ago, long since. Young, juvenile, inex¬ 
perienced, ignorant, youthful. Youth, boy, lad, minority, adolescence, juvenility. 
Youthful, young, juvenile, boyish, girlish, puerile. (Old ) 

ZEAL, energy, fervor, ardor, earnestness, enthusiasm, eagerness. (Indifference.) 
Zealous, warm, ardent, fervent, enthusiastic, anxious. (Indifferent, careless. : 
Zest, relish, gusto, flavor. (Disgust.) 

- - ——-—- ---- 

Lead in the form of filings, under a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres, or thir¬ 
teen tons to the square inch, becomes compressed into a solid block, in 
which it is impossible to detect the slightest vestige of the original grains. 
Under a pressure of 5,000 atmospheres it liquifies. 

62 



THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE 


Facts Astronomical, Geographical, Historical and Statistical. 


A CCORDING to the System of Copernicus ( b . 1473), the 
Sun was regarded as the center of the universe. The 
planets, Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and 
Saturn, revolved round it in circular orbits; the Moon was a satel¬ 
lite of the Earth, spun round it as a center, and accompanied 
it on its annual rotation round the Sun. Since then this view 
has been firmly established in its main principles, but it is now 
known that the Sun itself moves steadily toward the constella¬ 
tion Hercules, and that it is by no means the largest body in the 
universe. The Solar System is known to consist of a central 
Sun, round which all the other members revolve. These consist 
of eight primary planets, viz.: Mercury, Venus, the Earth, 
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune ; twenty secondary 
planets, satellites , or attendants upon the planets, of which the 
Earth has one, Mars two, Jupiter four, Saturn eight, Uranus 
four, and Neptune one ; a number of minor planets or asteroids 
situated between Mars and Jupiter, of which 271 are known; sev¬ 
eral comets, and a great number of small meteoric bodies. 

In their broad general features the planets are all alike. The 
ball or globe-like form is peculiar to all of them, they are all 
dark bodies, deriving light and heat from the sun, and conse¬ 
quently they all reflect the same borrowed light. In common, 
they all perform two motions, the one a spinning or rotatory mo¬ 
tion on an axis, the other a motion of translation, which whirls 
them round the sun. Both these motions are from west to east, 
and the orbits which they describe round the sun are not circu¬ 
lar, as represented by the Copernican System, but assume more 
the form of an oval or ellipse. 


SOME ELEMENTS OF THE PLANETARY SYSTEM. 


Names of 
the Planets. 

Diameter 
in miles. 

Periodic 
time. Days. 

Dis. from the 
Sun. Miles. 

Revolves on 
its Axis. 

Moves in its Or¬ 
bit per hour. 

Mercury 

3,200 

88 

37 

Mill. 

24 h. 5 m 

110,000 Miles 

Venus . . 

7,700 

224.7 

69 

U 

23 h. 21 m 

83.000 

U 

Earth. . . 

7,916 

365)4 

95 

u 

23 h. 56 m 

68,000 

(• 

Mars. . . 

4,200 

687 

145 

u 

24 h. 39 m 

54,000 

U 

Jupiter. . 

88,000 

4,332)4 

494 

a 

9 h. 56 m 

30,000 

u 

Saturn. . 

75,000 

10.759 

906 

u 

10 h. 29 m 

22,000 

u 

Uranus 

35,000 

30,687 

1,822 

u 

Unknown 

15,000 

u 

Neptune 

38,000 

60,127 

2,853 

u 

U 

12,000 

u 

Moon. . . 

2,180 

Dist. from Earth, 238,000 miles. 

2,280 

u 

Sun .... 

887,000 

1,400,000 times larger 

than Earth 

Unknown. 


63 

















THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE . 

The circumference of the earth is measured in this way : Sup¬ 
pose two astronomers, A and B, stationed on the same meridian, 
a certain distance apart, and with accurate instruments, should 
make careful observations on a certain star at the moment it 
crossed the meridian ; and A should find the star 16 degrees south 
of the zenith, and B, who is exactly 415 miles south of A, should 
find it only 10 degrees south of the zenith ; there would then be 
a difference of 6 degrees between the two places ; and as they-' 
are 415 miles apart, one degree must be i-6th of 415 or 69 i-6th 
miles. 

Now, if 1 degree, which is the 360th part of the earth’s cir¬ 
cumference, is 69 1 -6th miles, the whole circumference must be 
360 times 69 1-6th, or 24,900 miles. 

It is in this manner that the earth’s magnitude is computed 
verjr accurately.. 


The Nebular Hypothesis, now generally accepted by 
scientists as explaining, as far as possible by human conception, 
the genesis of the heavenly bodies, was first suggested by Her- 
schel, and developed by Laplace. It assumes that the solar sys¬ 
tem was once an enormous mass of gaseous substance. Rapid 
rotation being set up in this gaseous mass, it took the form of a 
disc, and at last, centrifugal force overcoming cohesion, whole 
rings and fragments flew olf from this disc, and by centripetal 
force contracted into spheroid masses. As in the original mass, 
the velocity of the outer circle of each body thrown off is greater 
than the inner circle, and this causes each spheroid to revolve on 
its own axis. This process goes on, and the central mass con¬ 
tinues to cool and shrink, until we have at last a central body 
with a number of smaller spheroidal bodies revolving around it 
in orbits the smaller the nearer they are to the central orb. 
Certain points are assumed in this hypothesis to explain the dis¬ 
tribution of matter in our solar system. It is assumed that in the 
throwing off of great masses from the central disk, immense quan¬ 
tities of minute particles were also thrown, which continued to 
revolve, in the same plane with the large mass, around the center 
body. By slow degrees these minute atoms, by the law of gravi¬ 
tation, were aggregated into the mass.nearest to them. These 
subordinate aggregations would form with most difficulty nearest 
the large central mass, because of the superior attractive force of 
the latter, wherefore the interior planets—Mercury, Venus, the 
Earth, Mars—are smaller than the two great orbs in the zone be¬ 
yond them. These two enormous planets, Jupiter and Saturn, 
occupy the space where conditions are most favorable to subor¬ 
dinate aggregations, but, beyond them, the gravity of aggregat¬ 
ing material becomes reduced, and so the planets found in the 

64 



THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


outer zone, Uranus and Neptune, are smaller than the planets of 
the middle zone. 


Our Globe and Its Inhabitants. 

The three primary divisions of man, as indicated by Latham, 
are the Indo-European, the Mongolian, and the African. 

I. The Indo-European or Caucasic race originally extended from India across 
Europe, and increasing ever in civilization and intellectual power from age to age, 
has become the dominant one in the world, extending its influence to every part of 
the earth, supplanting many inferior races, and repeopling wide areas, as in America 
and Australia. 

The Caucasic race comprises two principal branches—the Aryan and the Semitic. 
A third branch, according to M. de Quatrefages, includes the Caucasians proper, 
Euscarians (Basques), and others. 

Most of the inhabitants of Europe belong to the Aryan Family; they are arranged 
in the following groups : 

1. The Keltic, in the N. W., comprising the Welsh, Gaels, Erse, Manx, and 
Armoricans. 

2. The Italic, chiefly in the S. W. and S., comprising the Italians and other Ro¬ 
mance nations—French, Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanesch, and Roumanians. 

3. The Thraco-Hellenic, in the S. E., Greeks and Albanians. 

4. The Teutonic, in the N. N. W., and center, comprising the Germans, Scandi¬ 
navians, Danes, Icelanders, Dutch, Flemings, English. 

5. The Lithuanian, S. E. of the Baltic. 

6. The Slavonic, in the E., comprising the Russians, Poles, Tsekhs, Serbs, Croats, 
Bulgarians, etc. 

The Indo-European or Caucasic race in Asia comprises the Hindus, Baluchis, 
Afghans, Iranians (Persia), Galchas (Zarafshan), and the Semitic tribes of Armenia, 
Syria, Arabia, etc. 

II. The Mongolian is divisible into three branches, according to geographical 
position, which again form numerous smaller families. 

1. The Asiatic, comprising the Mongolians of the Chinese Empire, India, and 
Indo-China ; the Kalmucks, adjoining the Turks, who extend from Southern Europe 
far into Central Asia; The Magyars of Hungary; the Yakuts and Samoeids (or 
Samoyedes) of Siberia; with the Lapps, Finns, and various tribes of East Europe. 

2. The Oceanic Mongolians are composed of two classes. I. The black-skinned, 
found in New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, and the islands between New Zealand 
and New Caledonia. II. The yellow, olive or brown race, occupying New Zea¬ 
land, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Moluccas, Philippines, Mada¬ 
gascar, etc. 

3. The American Mongolians comprise a large number of tribes, the chief of which 
in North America are—the Athabaskans, Algonkins, Sioux, Paducas, and Mexicans. 
In South America the Quichuas, Chilians, and Patagonians extend along the west 
coast. The Caribs, Maypures, Brazilians, Moxos, and Chiquitos occupy the north, 
east, and center of the continent. The Eskimos form a connecting link between the 
Asiatic and American branches of this family. 

III. The African, forming the third great division of the human race, is exhibited 
in its purest form by the natives of Western Africa. The Negroes occupy the whole 
central portion of the country from Cape Verd on the west to Khartoom on the east, 
and south to the Congo. South of the Negros are the Bantus (including the Kafirs), 
inhabiting the greater part of Africa between the 4th parallel of N. lat. and the 
Cape. In the S. W. are the Hottentots. Certain dwarfish tribes are found in dif¬ 
ferent parts of the continent, as the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert, the Obongo of 
the Ogowe basin, and others. The Fulas and Nubas occupy parts of the Soudan; 
the former, in the N. W., extend from the Senegal and Niger towards Lake Tchad ; 
the latter are found in Nubia, Kordofan, Darfur, etc. The Gallas, Copts, Somali, 
of the Sahara, Egypt, and East Africa ; the Abyssinians ; and the Berbers, Kabyles, 
Tuareks and other tribes of North Africa, belong to the Hamitic race, which is 
closely allied to the Semitic race. The latter is represented by the Arabs of the N. 
coast, and of the Arabian Peninsula, and by the Tigres and other tribes or Abyssinia. 

65 




“The New World,” as the great continents of the 
Western Hemisphere are called, was first opened to Christian civ¬ 
ilization by the discovery of Columbus in 1492. The various coun¬ 
tries are all concisely described elsewhere. Area of North Amer¬ 
ica, 8,075,000 sq. miles; South America, 7,535,000 sq. miles. The 
entire population in 1880 was about 105,000,000. 


66 





















ONTARIO is the most important province of Canada. 
Principal products: grain, fruit, lumber, petroleum, copper and 
iron. Its population, largely of British descent, is one-third of the 
whole Dominion. Toronto, the capital, is the manufacturing and 
educational center. 


67 
































THE WORLD’S PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 


Countries. 


China. 


British Empire. 

Russian Empire. 

France and Colonies.... 

United States. 

German Empire. 

Austro-Hung. Empire... 

Japan. 

Holland and Colonies... 

Turkish Empire.. 

Italy.. 

Spain and Colonies. 

Sokoto. 

Corea. 

Brazil. 

M exico. 

Congo Free State. 

Persia. 

Portugal and Colonies... 

Egypt t. 

Sweden and Norway.... 

Morocco. 

Belgium. 

Siam. 

Roumaniaf. 

Colombia. 

Afghanistan.. 

Argentine Republic. 

Madagascar.. 

Abyssinia. 

Saxonyt. 

Peru... 

Switzerland. 

Bolivia. 

Bokhara. 

Venezuela. 

Chili. 

Denmark. 

Bulgariat. 

Greece.. 

Wurtembergt. 

Servia. 

Oman. 

Guatemala. 

Ecuador. 

Tripolit. 

Transvaal. 

Salvador.. 

Uruguay. . 

Paraguay. 

Honduras. 

Nicaragua. 

Dominican Republic.... 

Montenegro. 

Costa Rica... 

Orange Free State. 

Hayti.. 

Hawaii. 


Population. 


403,000,000 
320,670,000 
102,970,000 
63,072,043 
*60,000,000 
46,852,450 
39,206,052 
36,700,118 
33,042,238 
32,000,000 
29,699,785 
24,873,621 
12,600,000 
10,519,000 
10,200,000 
10,007.000 
8,000,000 
7,653,600 
7,249,050 
6,806,381 
6,554,448 
6,500,000 
5,853,278 
5,700,000 
5,376,000 
4,000,000 
4,000,000 
3,026,000 
3,000,000 
3,000,000 
2,972,805 
2,970,000 
2,906,752 
2,325,000 
2,130,000 
2,121,988 
2,115,340 
2,045,179 
2,007.919 
1,979,453 
1,971,118 
1,820,000 
1,600,000 
1,278,311 
1,146.000 
1,010,000 
800,000 
554,900 
520,536 
476,000 
458,000 
400,000 
300,000 
245,380 
180,000 
133,518 
93,200 
66,097 


* Estimated population, 1888. t Also 
eluded in German Empire. 


Sq. Miles. 

Capitals. 

4,469,200 

Pekin. 

9,079,711 

London . 

8,644,100 

St. Petersburg.. 

970,477 

Paris. 

3,602,990 

Washington. 

212,028 

Berlin. 

261,591 

Vienna. 

147,669 

Tokio. 

778,187 

The Hague. 

1,731,280 

Constantinople. 

111,410 

Rome. 

361,953 

Madrid.. 

178,000 

Sokoto. 

91,430 

Seul. 

3,219,000 

Rio de Janeiro. 

751,177 

Mexico.. 

636,000 

Teheran. 

240,691 

Lisbon. 

494,000 

Cairo.. 

295,714 

Stockholm. 

314,000 

Fez . 


11.373 

Brussels. 

280,550 

Bangkok. 

46,314 

Bucharest. 

331.420 

Bogota.... 

279.000 

Cabul. 

609,386 

Buenos Avres . 

228,570 

Antananarivo.. 

129,000 


5,789 

Dresden. 

405,010 

Lima. 

15.981 

Berne. 

481,600 

La Paz. .. 

92,300 

Samarcand. 

566,159 

Caracas. 

307,525 

Santiago . 

14.842 

Copenhagen . 

24,700 

Sofia. 

24,977 

Athens... 

7.531 

Stuttgart. 

18,757 

Belgrade. 

81,000 

Muscat. . 

46.774 

New Guatemala . 

248,370 

Quito. 

399,000 

Tripoli.. 

110,193 

Pretoria. 

7,228 

San Salvador . 

72.112 

Montevideo 

92,000 

Asuncion . 

42,658 

Tegucigalpa. 

51,660 

Managua... 

20,596 

San Domingo .... 

3,486 

Cetigno. 

19,985 

San Jose.. .. .• . 

41,484 

Bloemfontein. . 

29,830 

Port-au-Prince. 

6,587 

Honolulu. 


Governm’t 


Abs. Desp 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Lim Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Desp 
Abs Desp 
Lim. Mon 
Republic 
Free State 
Abs. Desp 
Lim Mon 
Abs. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Desp 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Desp 
Lim. Mon 
Republic 
Abs. Desp 
Republic 
Abs. Desp 
Abs. Desp 
Lim. Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Abs. Desp 
Republic 
Republic 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Lim. Mon 
Abs. Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Abs Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Abs. Mon 
Republic 
Republic 
Republic 
Lim. Mon 


enumerated with the Turkish Empire. 
68 


tin 

























































































































EUROPE. 

According to the latest census of its various states, the popula¬ 
tion of Europe amounts to 340,000,000, or one-fourth of the 
entire population of the world. 

Religion—Christians, 328,000,000 (Roman Catholics, 160,- 
000.000; Protestants, 85,000,000; Greek Church, 83,000,000). 
Mohammedans, 6,000,000 ; Jews, 5,700,000 ; Heathen, 300,000. 

Climate—Mean annual temperature and rainfall : Mediter¬ 
ranean countries, 59°-66° F., 23-43 inches; Atlantic coasts, 
37 °' 59 ° F., 19-118 inches; Baltic district, 37°-50° F., 15-23 
inches ; Black Sea district, 4i°-53° F., 7-19 inches ; Subarctic 
Europe, i9°-32° F. 

THE BRITISH ISLES. —The British Isles comprise about 
500 islands, of which one-half are inhabited. Religion—Church 
of England (Episcopal), about 14.000,000; Church of Scotland 
(Presbyterian), about 1,400,000 ; Roman Catholics, about 6,000,- 
000; Dissenters, 6,000,000 ; Jews, 60,000. Government—Heredi¬ 
tary limited Monarchy. Executive, the Sovereign. Legislative, 
the Sovereign, the House of Lords, composed of 4 Royal Princes, 

2 Archbishops, 22 Dukes, 19 Marquises, 114 Earls, 28 Viscounts, 
24 Bishops, 286 Barons, 16 Scottish Representative Peers, and 28 
Irish Representative Peers ; 1 of the former and 2 of the latter 
are Peers of England. Total, 540. And lastly, the House of 
Commons, composed of 670 members, elected every Parliament— 
465 for England, 30 for Wales, 72 for Scotland, and 103 for Ire¬ 
land. 

ENGLAND AND WALES form the southern and larger part 
of Great Britain. State Religion, Protestant Episcopal, 13,- 
500,000 ; Dissenters, 12,500,000 (Methodists have 13,270 chapels ; 
Independents, 2,603 ; Baptists, 2,243). Roman Catholics, 1,058,- 
000; Jews, 60,000. There are 5 universities (Oxford, 3,090 
students; Cambridge, 2,894; Victoria, 1,310; Durham, 181 ; 
and London); 13 university colleges with 6,800 students ; 9 “ great 
public schools ” with 3,940 pupils ; a large number of private and 
higher class schools ; and 19,022 elementary schools attended by 

4>5°5’ 82 5 pupils. . j . 

In England 80 per cent, of the whole area is productive; in 
Wales, 60 per cent. Cereal crops occupy a fourth of the pro¬ 
ductive area of England, and a sixth in Wales. But manufac¬ 
tures, mining, and trade entirely outstrip agricultural industry. 
Minerals—Coal, 1886, 137,039,441 tons annually, iron, lead, tin, 
copper, zinc, slate, salt, and shale. Factories—Cotton, 2,481 
(465,654 employes); woollen, 1,503 (108,634); silk, 681 (40,134). 
Total number of textile factories, 6,359. Employes, 814,474. 

SCOTLAND forms the northern and smaller part of Great 
Britain. Religion—Established Church of Scotland, 579,043 

69 


< co o a ui 



QUEBEC was originally settled by the French, and its 
present population is largely composed of descendants of the voy¬ 
agers. The capital, Quebec, is the oldest city in the Dominion. 
Its fortifications, when taken by Gen. Wolfe, were considered 
next to Gibraltar, the strongest in the world. The metropolis' 
Montreal, is noted for its churches. 


70 






















MANITOBA, a province of Canada, is a great wheat-growing 
country, this cereal ripening in no days. Furs are also a leading 
product. The first settlers (1731) were French, and English traders 
first made their appearance in 1767 . Climate very severe in 
winter, but occasionally hot in summer. Winnipeg is the capital. 


71 




















THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


members ; Free Church of Scotland, 333,098 members; United 
Presbyterian, 182,170 members; Episcopal, 76,939; Roman 
Catholic, 320,000. Education—There are 4 universities (Aber¬ 
deen, 830 students ; Edinburgh, 3,164; Glasgow, 2,231 ; St. An* 
drews, 212); 1 college (Dundee, 332 students); nearly 300 higher 
class schools with about 70,000 pupils ; and 3,092 elementary 
schools with (1886) 615,498 scholars. Government grant (1887), 
£ 445 > 883 . 

The total area of Scotland is 19,084,659 acres, and out of this 
number 14,613,446 acres consist of woods, bog and waste land, 
water, and hill-land. Only 25 per cent, of the whole area is pro¬ 
ductive. Cereal crops occupy a fourth of the productive area, 
and agriculture is limited to the plains and valleys of the east 
and south. Minerals—Coal (20,373,478 tons in 1886), iron, lead, 
slate, etc. Factories—Cotton, 147 (37,167 employes); woolen, 
274 (27,546); flax, 152 (39,086); jute, 105 (36,269). Total number 
of textile factories, 776 with 152,279 employes. 

IRELAND has the Atlantic Ocean on all sides except the east, 
where it is separated from Great Britain by St. George’s Chan¬ 
nel, the Irish Sea, and North Channel. Religion—Roman 
Catholics, 3,960,891 ; Protestant Episcopalians, 620,000 ; Presby¬ 
terians, 470,734; Methodists, 48,839 ; Jews, 472. Education— 
There are 2 universities (Dublin, 1,258 students, and the Royal 
University); 3 Queen’s Colleges, Belfast (400), Cork (249), Gal¬ 
way (94); 1,500 superior schools with 200,000 pupils ; 8,024 e ^ e ' 
mentary schools (1886) with an average attendance of 490,484. 
Government grant (1887) £888,966. 

Ireland is essentially an agricultural country ; the mineral re¬ 
sources are small, and mining is not prosecuted with vigor. Of 
the whole area, 74 per cent, is productive, and cereal crops oc¬ 
cupy one-ninth of this. Minerals—Coal is extensively dis¬ 
tributed ; but from its inferior quality and its not being found 
near iron, it is not much wrought—only 105,563 tons having been 
produced in 1886. Iron ore is common, but smelting cannot be 
carried on for want of fuel. Manufactures—The chief manu¬ 
facture is linen, which is mostly confined to Ulster. Factories— 
Linen, 166 (61,749 employes); woolen, 141 (3,136); cotton, 7 
(1,248). Total number of textile factories, 330 with 68,158 em¬ 
ployes. 

SPAIN is bounded on the north by France and the Bay of 
Biscay ; on the west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal; and on 
the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea. Religion—Roman 
Catholic, except 34,000 (6,654 Protestants). Government—Con¬ 
stitutional monarchy. Executive, the King. Legislative, the 
King, and Cortes, composed of the Senate with 360 members, 
and Congress of 431 members. Education—30,000 elementary 

72 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

schools with 1,700,000 pupils ; 10 universities with 15,700 students. 

PORTUGAL. —On the east and north Portugal is bounded by 
Spain, and on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean. Re¬ 
ligion—Roman Catholic; 500 Protestants. Government—Hered¬ 
itary limited monarchy. Executive, the King and Cabinet. 
Legislative, the Cortes, composed of House of Peers with j62 
members, and House of Commons with 149 members. Educa¬ 
tion—5,500 schools with 240,000 pupils; 1 university with 670 
students. 

FRANCE is bounded on the north by the English Channel; 
on the west by the Bay of Biscay ; on the south by Spain and the 
Mediterranean Sea ; and on the east by Belgium, Germany, 
Switzerland, and Italy. Religion—Roman Catholic. About 
693,000 Protestants. Government—Republican. Executive, the 
President of the Republic. Legislative, the Senate and the 
Chamber of Deputies. The former composed of 300 members, 
and the later of 584 members. Education is entirely under Gov¬ 
ernment supervision. There are 16 “ facultes des lettres et des 
sciences,” 14 “ facultes de droit,” and 6 “ facultes de medecine,” 
with (1884) 12,195 students. Elementary and secondary schools, 
86,000, with over 6,000,000 pupils. 

BELGIUM. —On the west Belgium is bounded by the North 
Sea; on the north by the Netherlands ; on the east by Holland; 
and on the south by France. Religion—The Roman Catholic 
religion is professed by nearly the entire population, though full 
liberty and social equality is granted to all confessions. There 
are 15,000 Protestants, and 3,000 Jews. Government—Constitu¬ 
tional and hereditary monarchy. Executive, the King and 
ministry. Legislative, vested in the King, the Chamber of Rep¬ 
resentatives, and the Senate. The Chamber consists of 138 
members, and the Senate of 69. Education—There are 4 uni¬ 
versities (Brussels, Ghent, Liege, and Louvain), attended in 
1886-87 by 4,990 students ; 150 higher class schools with 27,675 
pupils ; and 6,350 primary and infant schools with 673,938 pupils 
in 1885. 

THE NETHERLANDS are bounded on the west and north by 
the North Sea ; on the south by Belgium ; and on the east by 
Germany. Religion—Protestants, 2,469,814 ; Roman Catholic, 
1,439,137 ; Jews, 81,693. Government—Hereditary and consti¬ 
tutional monarchy. Executive, the King. Legislative, the King 
and Parliament or States-General, composed of the First Cham¬ 
ber with 50 members, and the Second Chamber with 100. Edu¬ 
cation—There are 4 universities (Leyden, Groningen, Utrecht, 
and Amsterdam), attended by (1886) 2,110 students ; 1,278 pri¬ 
vate and higher class schools, with (1885) 174,604 scholars ; 2,923 

73 



ALASKA was purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7,500,000, and 
the United States Government has already regained that sum from 
the seal fisheries. Principal industries, fishing, canning, trapping 
and mining. The population is largly Indian, only about 2,000 
being whites. The climate of Alaska is modified by the Pacific 
Gulf Stream and long summer days. Winter temperature at Sitka 
averages about the same as Washington, D. C. 


74 





























A r=» 


E 


N N 


E 


S 


Corii 


Florence 


Elkmonajp®* “ a,ke '^- S ‘tovc,Lon 




Hi 


’uscumbia x 

Bel Green 
^^VEzzt 

Thorn Hill. 


Athens 

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w &ock 
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r Moulton V Somerville 

zzell' Jwi \Hartsell3 d 

o Pebble a , Guntersville 

• n - LFalkvul \ / Collinsville^ 

J1 s Ms.oVHonston Atalla / <^o 

° PikeVille Blount Springf BlountsviUe F^&fadsden 

me Springs Jasper \ / 'Whitney / /O — 

~ °» VcAA ^AsKvill* ^o^Cross plains. 

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Millport 


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Tus^lo^aT^ 1 -^ '/ aier a 
River Bend 
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CQ //^ ^ ^S.Green 9 ADrongh/ Ma P les ^ 
Lim2ston Jb. \ ^ Marion LPlantersviHe 


Cincinnati J\ 


Talladega^ ^ 

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olumblana \° Ashland \ 

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M'° nte f&eek 

Cl\anto^ A Rockford T^v A La iwette 


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f 


tork Ijfta. MartTnvJ^— 

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uskeegee Seale 

ewe 1 —Hurtsboro 

'hompsoir 


James 


Batesvdle 


Ada<J Union Spr’s 

homas Sta./ j p, . 

Jlayton!^ 

oiCox’s Mill 


Autiey Cr.pJ 0 Linileh v Gulf^ r 
1° ) 0 Rembert NHIaVnevilleo 

/ Butler / ‘•'OifT jMorganvil 

t o Shilohj vVlratery 6 , 

jSwe^ TO" ° C Fort Deposit/ 

I ^/uralV, Fat^oT fe e JenviUel M*J 2 

(| & Aquilk Grove Hill Turnbull/ Commerce ® R u tled b ~ 

’ ,1 ° ) [ River Ridge° / Georgiana / Rceder’sMHla 

•Stephens H&rAfllTi ) / G ariand J^.rley ^ ^ 

imbert09^f"‘^ c!i3 ^'^ ent<)n / o B/ellerille Hilton / 

'“trir 

omocky Z - ^ 0 Andalusia . wtl Cpwarta ; 
LewidSta. iv 
_ T-lko A ifiW (Innnrft *V 


Troy i 
Rutledge ^ 


St, 

Lumberto 
^•Beer Par 
onj 


Ft Gaines Q 


o Tcnsair 


H 


^ Bo ***ibi 

Citronelle^> ? eT <}ifT 0 o^° e *S'k 4t/c> ./ / 

K+ ft 

[obile 

!o Baphne 


Columbia^ 


lard Lake/Viejv Gooeva < jy ,arw ^ Lynno 


H 


MAP OF 
ALABAMA 

Population -1,262,505 
Area sq.miles -51,540 


ALABAMA ranks fourth in cotton, fifth in mules and molasses, 
sixth in sugar, seventh in rice and iron ore, tenth in bituminous 
coal,seventeenth in population. First settlement by the French at 
Mobile, 1711. Admitted to the Union 1819. 


75 


































THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


public elementary schools, with 440,851 pupils ; and 1,017 public 
and private infant schools, with 107,563 pupils. 

GRAND DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG. 

Religion—All Roman Catholic, with exception of 2,200. Gov¬ 
ernment—In 1867 the Duchy was proclaimed neutral territory, 
the King of the Netherlands being declared the Grand Duke ; 
but in all other respects it is independently administered. 

SWITZERLAND is the most mountainous country in Europe, 
the immense mass of Mt. St. Gothard forming the center or 
nucleus of a system of mountains, covered with perennial snow, 
the peaks of which rise from 5,000 Jo 15,000 feet above sea level. 
The chief passes are St. Bernard, 8,120 feet; Cervin, 10,938 feet; 
Simplon, 6,595 feet; St. Gothard, 6,936 feet; Splugen, 6,945 
feet. Religion—58 per cent. Protestants ; 41 per cent. Roman 
Catholics. Government—Federal Republic of 22 Cantons. Ex¬ 
ecutive, Federal Council of 7, including the President. Legisla¬ 
tive, the State Council of 44 members, and the National Council 
ot 145 Representatives. Education—Compulsory. There are 4 
universities (Basel, Bern, Zurich, and Geneva), with 1,500 
students, and 5,500 elementary and secondary schools with 
500,000 pupils. 

GERMANY. —On the north Germany is bounded by the North 
Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; on the east by Russia ; on 
the south by Austria and Switzerland ; and on the west by 
France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Religion—1880, Pro¬ 
testants, 28,330,970 ; Roman Catholics, 16,232,600 ; Jews, 561,610. 
Government—The 26 States which comprise the German Empire 
are united into a Confederation. The supreme direction of the 
military and political affairs is vested in the King of Prussia, 
controlled by the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, consisting of 
62 members appointed by the individual States of the Empire, 
and the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, composed of 397 mem¬ 
bers elected by universal suffrage. Education—There are 21 
universities, attended in 1887 by 27,784 students; 57,000 ele¬ 
mentary schools with 7,100,000 pupils ; and 1,484 higher class 
and technical schools with 266,228 pupils. 

NORWAY AND SWEDEN .—These two kingdoms, forming 
the Scandinavian Peninsula, are bounded on the north by the 
Arctic Ocean ; on the east by Russia, the Gulf of Bothnia, and 
the Baltic Sea ; on the south by the Baltic Sea, the Sound, Cat- 
tegat, and Skager Rack ; and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean 

NORWAY. 

Religion—Lutheran Protestant with the exception of 7,238. 
Government—Norway and Sweden together form an hereditary 

70 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

and limited monarchy, the King of Sweden being also King of 
Norway, but each country having a separate legislative govern¬ 
ment. Executive, the King. Legislative, the Storthing, consist¬ 
ing of the Lagthing of 28 members, and the Odelsthing of 86 
members. Education—There are 6,600 elementary schools with 
279,000 pupils ; and 1 university with 1,350 students. 

SWEDEN. 

Religion—Lutheran Protestant, with 21,000 exceptions. Gov¬ 
ernment—Executive, the King. Legislative, the Diet, composed 
of two Chambers, the First with 142 members, and the Second 
with 214 members. Education—There are 2 universities with 
2,500 students, and 10,000 elementary and other schools with 
700,000 pupils. 

AUSTRO-HUNGARY. —Austria is bounded on the north by 
Poland, Silesia, and Saxony; oh the west by Bavaria and 
Switzerland ; on the south by Venetia, the Adriatic and the 
Balkan States ; and on the east by Moldavia and West Russia. 
Religion—Roman Catholics, 25,598,000 ; Protestants, 3,630,000 ; 
Jews, 1,646,000. Government—Austria and Hungary form a 
hereditary dual-monarchy, each country having its own Parlia¬ 
ment, Ministry, and Administration. They are both united 
under a hereditary sovereign, the Emperor of Austria being also 
King of Hungary, and a controlling body known as the “ Dele¬ 
gations.” Education—Austria has 8 universities, attended in 
1887 by 14,540 students ; 1,824 higher class schools with 180,162 
pupils; and 17,419 elementary schools with 2,781,220 pupils. 
Hungary has 2 universities, attended in 1887 by 4,169 students ; 
374 higher class schools with (1885) 49,409 pupils; and 16,717 
elementary schools with 1,841,668 pupils. 

ITALY. —The Peninsula of Italy projects into the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea, which forms its southern boundary. On the north 
it is bounded by Austria and Switzerland ; on the west by France 
and the Tyrrhenian Sea; and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. 
Religion—Roman Catholic, but about 62,000 Protestants and 
38,000 Jews. Government—Executive, the King. Legislative, 
the King and Parliament, consisting of two Chambers—the Sen¬ 
ate, consisting of the Royal Princes and any number of dis¬ 
tinguished men above 40 years of age who are nominated by the 
King. The Second Chamber, that of the Deputies, consists of 
508 members elected by the people. Education—Italy had (1884) 
21 universities with 13,334 students. 

DENMARK. —On the west Denmark is bounded by the North 
Sea ; on the northwest by the Skager Rack ; on the east by the 
Cattegat, the Sound, and the Baltic ; and on the south by the 
Baltic and the German province of Schleswig. Religion—The 

77 


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ARIZONA 

Population-> 40,440 

Area sq.miles. .113,929 


0) 


ARIZONA ranks fifth in silver, ninth in gold, eighth in sheep, 
forty-first in miles of railway, forty-third in population. First 
explored by the Spaniards in 1526; organized as a territory, 1863. 


78 






























ARKANSAS ranks fifth among the States in cotton, ninth in 
mules, twenty-fifth in population. First settlement by the French 
at Arkansas Post, 1685. Admitted to the Union in 1836. 


79 





















THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

State religion is Lutheran, though complete toleration is ex¬ 
tended to every sect In 1880 only 17,526 persons did not belong 
to the Lutheran Church. Of this number 3,946 were Jews and 
2,985 Roman Catholics. Government—Hereditary Limited 
Monarchy. Executive, the King and Ministry. Legislative, 
the Rigsdag, or Diet, composed of the Landsthing, or Upper 
House, with 66 members, and the Folkething, or House of Com¬ 
mons, with 102 members. Education—Elementary education is 
compulsory. The university at Copenhagen has about 1,300 
students. There are 45 colleges and higher schools, and 2,940 
parochial schools with 231,935 pupils. 

EUROPEAN RUSSIA is bounded on the east by Siberia and 
the Caspian Sea ; on the south by Persia, the Black Sea, and 
Turkey ; on the west by Austria, Germany, the Baltic Sea, and 
Sweden ; and on the north by the Arctic Ocean. Religion—The 
established religion is the Russo-Greek. Protestants, 4,766,000 ; 
Roman Catholics, 8,910,000. Government—Absolute hereditary 
monarchy. Executive and legislative, the Czar. Administra¬ 
tive entrusted to four Councils, the Council of the Empire, the 
Ruling Senate, the Holy Synod, and the Committee of Ministers. 
Finland has a partly independent government—Grand Duke, 
the Czar. Education—Including Finland, there are—9 uni¬ 
versities with 14,000 students, and 38,000 schools with 2,250,000 
pupils. In 1882 only 19 per cent, of the Russian recruits could 
read and write. 

TURKEY IN EUROPE. —The Ottoman Empire in Europe 
now, strictly speaking, only comprises the immediate provinces, 
the remainder of its territory being divided among the independ¬ 
ent and tributary states of the Balkan Peninsula. Religion— 
More than one-half of the population are Christians, chiefly be¬ 
longing to the Greek Church ; the remainder consist of Moham¬ 
medans, with a few Jews. Government—Absolute monarchy. 
The Sultan is ruler, and his will is absolute, in so far as it is not 
in opposition to the precepts of the Koran. The legislative and 
executive authority is exercised, under the supreme direction of 
the Sultan, by the Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal gov¬ 
ernment, and the “ Sheik-ul-Islam,” the head of the church. 

GREECE is bounded on the north by Turkey in Europe ; on 
the east by the ^Egean Sea ; on the south by the Mediterranean 
Sea ; and on the west by Turkey and the Ionian Sea. Religion— 
Greek Orthodox Church with the exception of 46,000. Govern¬ 
ment—Limited monarchy^ Executive, the King. Legislative, 
the Boule (Chamber of Deputies) consisting of 150 representa¬ 
tives. Education—There are 2,600 schools attended by 140,000 
pupils, and 1 university with 2,400 students. 

80 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

MALTA . —The Maltese group comprises the islands of Malta, 
Gozo, and Comino. Area—119 square miles (Malta, 95 square 
miles). Population—159,231 (excluding British soldiers). The 
Government is administered by a Governor, who is assisted by 
an Executive Council of 6 members, and by a Council of Gov¬ 
ernment, 9 official and 8 elected members, of which the Gov¬ 
ernor is president. The British garrison consists of 5,216 British 
soldiers. 

GIBRALTAR . —This celebrated fortress, commanding the en¬ 
trance to the Mediterranean, belongs to Great Britain, and is 
situated on a rocky promontory in the south of Spain. Area— 
2 square miles. Population—1886 (including military), 24,139. 
The Governor in command of the garrison exercises all the exe¬ 
cutive and legislative authority. The garrison consists of 5,758 
British soldiers. 

HELIGOLAND. —Two islands in the North Sea, 25 miles 
from the mouth of the. Elbe. Area—Three-quarters square mile. 
Population—1881, 2,000. Religion—Lutheran. Government— 
British dependency, with a Governor assisted by an Executive 
Council. 

CYPRUS. —An island situated in the most eastern basin of the 
Mediterranean Sea. Area—3,584 square miles. Population— 
186,173. Religion—One-fourth Mohammedan, the remainder 
mainly of Greek Church. The Government of Cyprus is admin¬ 
istered by Great Britain on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, the 
Legislature consisting of a High Commissioner, who is also 
Commander-in-Chief, with a Council of 18 members. Six mem¬ 
bers are non-elective, and three are chosen by the Mohammedan 
residents. Annual subsidy payable to Turkey, £92,800. There 
are a number of schools on the island ; the Government grant 
in 1886-87, inclusive of that for building purposes, was £3,000. 

ICELAND. —This island, belonging to Denmark, lies in the 
Atlantic Ocean, about 600 miles west of Norway and about 250 
miles east of Greenland. Area—39,566 square miles. Popula¬ 
tion—72,445. Religion—All Protestants, belonging to the Luth 
eran Church. Government—The Legislative power is vested in 
the Althing, consisting of 36 members, 30 elected by popular 
suffrage, and 6 nominated by the King of Denmark. A Minister 
for Iceland, nominated by the King and responsible to the 
Althing, is at the head of the administration ; while the highest 
local authority is vested in the Governor, called. Stiftamtmand, 
who resides at Reykjavik. Education—The natives are distin¬ 
guished for their love of learning, and, notwithstanding their 
poverty and adverse circumstances, it is rare to find an Icelander 
who cannot read and write. There is a college at Reykjavik, 

81 



CALIFORNIA ranks first in gold, barley and grape culture, 
second in wool, third in hops, fifth in wheat, eighth in silver, 
twenty-fourth in population. First settlement by Spaniards, 1769, 
at San Diego. Admitted to the Union 1850. 


82 





















COLORADO ranks first in silver, fourth in gold, thirty-fifth in 
population. First settlement, by Americans, near Denver, about 
1850. Organized as a territory 1861; admitted to the Union, 1876. 


83 




























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

attended by about ioo scholars. The commerce consists in the 
exchange of wool, butter, skins, fish, and oil for European manu¬ 
factures. 

ASIA. 

Asia constitutes the eastern and main part of the Old 
World. Greatest breadth (Cape Chelyuskin 78° 12' N.) to 
Cape Romania (i° 10' N.) 5,300 miles. Greatest length, Cape 
Baba (26° 3' E.) to East Cape (169° o' W.) 7,000 miles. Area— 
17,300,000 square miles, nearly five times that of Europe, or one- 
third of the land surface of the globe. Population—According 
to the latest estimates there are 840,000,000 inhabitants, or one- 
half of the entire population of the world. Religion—Christians, 
15,000,000; Mohammedans, 80,000,000; Brahmins, Buddhists, 
etc., 745,000,000. Climate—.-Northern or Siberian Zone has a 
mean annual temperature of less than 32 0 F., Verkhoyansk (the 
pole of greatest cold), mean temperature, 2° F., January 56° F., 
July 59.8° F. Central Zone has summer and winter of great 
extremes. Southern and Eastern Zones (monsoon region) have 
a regular alternation of seasons. Lahore (Panjab), mean tem¬ 
perature, 75 0 F., January 53 0 F., June 93 0 F. 

TURKEY IN ASIA, the western promontory of Asia, lies, 
between 12 0 30' and 42 0 N. lat., and 26 0 and 48° E. long. Area 
—680,000 square miles. Population—16,174,100. Religion—The 
prevailing religion is Mohammedanism, of which there are 
12,000,000 adherents, while about 3,000,000 are nominally Chris¬ 
tians, including Greeks, Armenians, etc. Government—This, 
the greater part of the Turkish Empire, is divided for adminis¬ 
trative purposes into 24 official provincial governments or vila¬ 
yets. At the head of each of these is placed a Vali or Gover¬ 
nor-General, who represents the Sultan, and is assisted by a 
provincial council. Education—Throughout the Turkish Empire 
public schools have been long established in most considerable 
towns, while colleges, with public libraries, are attached to the 
greater number of the principal mosques. But the instruction 
afforded by these establishments is rather limited. 

ARABIA. —A huge peninsula of S. W. Asia, bounded on the 
north by Turkey in Asia ; on the east by the Persian Gulf and 
Gulf of Oman ; on the south by the Indian Ocean and Gulf of 
Aden ; and on the west by the Red Sea. Total area of penin¬ 
sula, 1,219,000 square miles (independent Arabia, 966,952 square 
miles). Population—(Estimated) 3,700,000. The inhabitants 
are either Bedouins or “wanderers,” or “Hadesi,” settled in towns 
and villages. Religion—With the exception of a few Jews the 
inhabitants are Mohammedans. At no time has Arabia been 
united into one harmonious whole, and at present large portions 

84 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

of its territory are claimed by foreign powers. Turkey claims 
as part of its Asiatic dominion the district of El Hasa bordering 
on the Persian Gulf, and the vilayets of Hadjaz and Yemen 
extending along the eastern shores of the Red Sea. Egypt holds 
possession of the Sinai peninsula and the old land of Midian 
which extends southward from the Gulf of Akaba. The terri¬ 
tory belonging to Britain comprises the fortress of Aden, Perim 
Island at the entrance to the Red Sea, the Kuria Muria Islands 
off the southeast coast, and the island of Kamaran in the Red 
Sea. The remainder of the country embraces all the interior 
and the south and east coasts between the Bahrein Islands and 
Aden. It is divided among an uncertain number of petty and 
independent states, the chief of which are Oman in the extreme 
east, extending inland from the gulf of the same name, with 
Muscat for its capital, and Jebel Shammar and Nejd in the in¬ 
terior, the capital of the former being Hail, and of the latter 
Riad. Hadramaut, on the south coast, is split up into numerous 
little states or principalities. 

PALESTINE. —This interesting region, the scene of the 
grandest events in the history of the world, is a narrow belt of 
land, bounded on the north by the mountain ranges of Lebanon 
and Hermon ; on the east it stretches over the tableland of the 
Hauran to the Arabian desert ; on the south it merges into the 
desert of Sinai ; and on the west it is bounded by the Mediter¬ 
ranean Sea. Area—11,000 square miles. Population—Estimated, 
700,000. Religion—Mohammedan (nearly 300,000 Christians in 
Lebanon). Government—Under Turkish rule, for administrative 
purposes, Palestine is divided into the government of el Kuds 
(Jerusalem), comprising the country west of the Dead Sea and 
the Jordan, as far north as about 32 0 30'; the government of Jebel 
Libnan (Lebanon), occupied by the slopes of that range on 
either side ; the remainder is included in the vilayet of Syria. 
One of the most striking features of Palestine is its natural divi¬ 
sion into four parallel strips—the Coast Plain, the Hill Country, 
the Jordan Valley, and the Eastern Plateau. The Coast Plain, 
from 10 to 20 miles wide, extends without a break from the 
desert on the south to Mount Carmel (1810 feet) on the north. 
The Hill Country, commencing south of the Mediterranean, 
traverses the country from south to north (Mount Hermon, 9,400 
feet; Mount of Olives, 2,683 feet). The Jordan Valley runs 
nearly parallel to the coast from the base of Mount Hermon 
to the Dead Sea, which occupies its deepest portion. The East¬ 
ern Plateau has a height of 2,500 to 3,000 feet, attaining its great¬ 
est altitude in Mount Hor (Jebel Horoun), 4,580 feet. 

The one great river of Palestine is the Jordan, which, emerging 
from underground as a full-bodied stream at the Springs of Has- 

85 



CONNECTICUT ranks first among the States in clocks, third in 
silk goods, fourth in cotton goods, eighth in tobacco, twenty-third 
in population. First settlement, by English, at Windsor, 1635. 
One of the thirteen original States. 





































DAKOTA in 1880 ranked third in gold, ninth in silver, twenty- 
sixth in miles of railway, thirty-ninth in population. First settle¬ 
ment, by Americans, at Pembina. Organized as a territory 1861; 
Admitted into the Union as two States, 1889. Population, 1887, 
estimated 568,477 (special census, 1885, 415,610). 


87 






























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

beiya, 847 feet above the sea, flows first through the Waters of 
Meron, then through the Sea of Galilee, 682 feet below the 
Mediterranean, from which it passes down the wide valley of El 
Ghor, and finally falls into the Dead Sea, the surface of which 
is 1,292 feet below the Mediterranean. 

PERSIA is bounded on the north by the Caspian Sea and 
Asiatic Russia ; on the west by Turkey in Asia ; on the south 
by the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea; and on the east by Af¬ 
ghanistan and Baluchistan. Religion—Mohammedan with about 
74,000 exceptions. Government—Despotic, the power of the 
Shah (Nasir-ed-Din, s. 1848), being absolute, in so far as it is 
not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the Koran. Under him, 
the Executive is carried on by a Council of 19 Ministers, pre¬ 
sided over by a brother of the Shah. Education—There are a 
large number of colleges supported by public funds, and numer¬ 
ous schools for children. A larger proportion of the population 
of Persia are possessed of the rudiments of education than of any 
other country in Asia, except China. 

AFGHANISTAN. —A country on the N. W. frontier of India, 
bounded on the north by Turkestan ; on the east by India ; on 
the south by Baluchistan ; and on the west by Persia. Area— 
298,235 square miles (inclusive of Kafiristan). Population— 
4,500,000, mainly Mohammedans of the Sunni sect. Govern¬ 
ment—Emir. In consequence of its inaccessible highland tracts, 
its numerous races and their tribal organization, no civil admin¬ 
istration can be said to exist beyond the collection of the revenue. 

BALUCHISTAN is bounded on the north by Afghanistan ; 
on the east by India; on the south by the Arabian Sea ; and on 
the west by Persia. Area—106,635 square miles. Population— 
500,000 ; Mohammedans of Shiah and Sunni sects. Govern¬ 
ment—The Khan concluded a treaty in 1876 with Britain, by 
which he has become a feudatory of the Empress of India. This 
treaty places the whole country at the disposal of the British 
Government for all military and strategic purposes. 

KHIVA AND BOKHARA. —Two Khanates, bounded on the 
north by the Sea of Aral and Russian possessions ; on the south 
by Afghanistan and Russian possessions ; and on the west by 
the Trans-Caspian district; being separated from each other by 
the Oxus. Area—Khiva, 22,290 square miles ; Bokhara 92,168 
square miles. Population—Khiva, 700,000 ; Bokhara, 2,130,000. 
Religion—The inhabitants of both states are Mohammedans. 
Government—Bokhara, since the capture of Samarkand bv 
Russia, 1868, is little more than a vassal state of that country, 
though still allowed to enjoy a certain show of political inde¬ 
pendence under a Khan or Mir. Khiva—The Russians cap- 

88 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

lured Khiva in 1873, abolished slavery, and compelled the Khan 
to acknowledge himself a vassal of the Czar. 

INDIA •—On the north India is bounded by the Himalaya 
Mountains ; on the west by Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and the 
Indian Ocean ; on the south by the Indian Ocean ; and on the 
east by the Bay of Bengal and Indo-China. Population—British 
Territory, exclusive of Upper Burma, 198,790,853 ; Native States, 
55 > I 5 °» 45 ^ i Ceylon, 2,763,984; Nepal and Bhotan, 2,700,000; 
French Possessions, 273,611; Portuguese Possessions, 475,172; 
total, 260,154,076. Religion—187,000,000 Hindus ; 50,000,000 
Mohammedans ; 3,500,000 Buddhists ; 1,862,634 Christians (Ro¬ 
man Catholics, 963,059 ; Protestants, 535,081; other sects, 364,- 
494). Government—Executive, the British Viceroy. Adminis¬ 
trative, the Secretary of State for India, and Council of 15 mem¬ 
bers. Education, 1885—4 universities (Calcutta, Madras, Bom¬ 
bay, and the Panjab). The total number of educational institu¬ 
tions (1885-86), 122,516, with 3,332,851 students. 

CHINA .—The Chinese Empire is bounded on the north and 
northwest by Asiatic Russia ; on the south and southwest by 
British India ; on the southeast by Indo-China ; and on the 
east by the Pacific Ocean. Estimated area of the Empire, 
4,469,200 square miles (China proper, 1,554,000 square miles ; 
Manchuria, 380,000 square miles ; Mongolia and Zungaria, 
1,452,000 square miles ; Thibet, 651,500 square miles ; Eastern 
Turkestan, 431,700. Population—China proper, 382,078,860; 
Manchuria, 12,000,000; Mongolia and Zungaria, 2,600,000; Thibet, 
6,000,000 ; Eastern Turkestan, 580,000. Religion—Bulk of the 
people, Buddhists; religion of the state and higher classes, Con¬ 
fucianism; 30,000,000 Mohammedans; 1,000,000 Roman Cath¬ 
olics ; 50,000 Protestants. Government—Despotic monarchy. 
Administrative, the “Nei-ko” or Cabinet (4 members and two 
assistants). Education—In China proper few are unable to read 
and write. Communication—20,000 miles of imperial roads, 40 
miles of railway built but unused, and 5,482 miles of telegraph 
wire. 

JAPAN. —Religion—Chiefly Buddhism (74,400 priests) ; Shin¬ 
toism (15,058 priests); Christians, 1883, 40,524; Christianity 
gaining rapidly. Government—Absolute monarchy—Emperor 
or “Mikado.” * Education, 1884—1 university with 1,880students; 
29,233 elementary schools with 3,233,226 scholars; and 1,636 high 
and other schools with 89,879 pupils. Railways—370 miles in 1887. 

BURMA.— Upper Burma until recently was an independent 
kingdom, governed by King Theebaw, a despotic monarch, but, 
early in 1886, the King was deposed and pensioned, and the 
country annexed to the Indian Empire, being placed under the 

89 



DELAWARE ranks twenty-first among the States in orchard 
products, thirty-seventh in population. First settlement, by 
Swedes, at Cape Henlopen, in 1627. Delaware is one of the thirteen 
original States. 


90 















































FLORIDA ranks third among- the States in sugar and molasses, 
sixth in rice, tenth in cotton, thirty-fourth in population. First 
settlement, by Spaniards, at St. Augustine, 1565. Admitted into 
the Union in 1S45. 



























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


Chief Commissioner of Lower Burma. Area—140,000 square 
miles (exclusive of Burmese Shan States, 40,000 square miles). 
Population—3,^00,000. Religion—Buddhism. Education—A 
complete national system of public instruction has been developed, 
and a knowledge of letters is universal. 

SIAM is the only remaining independent native state in the 
Indo-Chinese peninsula. Area—280,303 square miles. Popula¬ 
tion—5,750,000. Government—Absolute monarchy. Legislat¬ 
ive, the King assisted by a Council of Ministers and the Council 
of State. For administrative purposes the country is divided 
into 41 provinces with a Governor at the head of each. East of 
Siam the remainder of the Indo-Chinese peninsula is occupied 
by the French colonies and protectorates of Anam, Tongking, 
Cochin China, and Cambodia. Area—Anam, 106,290 square 
miles ; Tongking, 35,000 square miles ; Cochin China, 23,090 
square miles ; Cambodia, 32,380 square miles. Population— 
Anam, 6,000,000; Tongking, 9,000,000; Cochin China (1883), 
1,639,777 ; Cambodia, 1,500,000. Government—By a decree of 
October 1887 the French possessions are placed under a Gover¬ 
nor-General, under whom are 2 Residents-General for Tongking 
and Cambodia, a Resident for Anam, and a Lieutenant-Gover¬ 
nor for Cochin China. 

RUSSIA IN ASIA. —The Asiatic possessions of Russia are 
bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean ; on the east by the 
Pacific Ocean ; on the south by the Chinese Empire, Bokhara, 
Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkey in Asia ; and on the west by 
European Russia. Area—6,645,720 square miles. Population— 
15,865,740. Religion—Christianity and Mohammedanism pre¬ 
vail in Caucasia, while in Central Asia and Siberia Christianity 
is professed by the Slavs, Buddhism, Shamanism, and Moham¬ 
medanism by the native races. Government—For administra¬ 
tive purposes the country is divided into five general govern¬ 
ments—Caucasus, Turkestan, Stepnoye, Eastern Siberia, and 
Amur. At the head of each of these is either a Viceroy, or a 
Governor-General, the representative of the Czar, who as such 
has the supreme control and direction of all affairs, whether civil 
or military. Education—In Siberia the means provided for 
higher education consist of 15 gymnasia, 2 real schools, and 3 
normal schools. Primary education is in a very unsatisfactory 
state, there being only 665 schools, scattered over the whole 
country, with an attendance of 23,470 pupils. 

OCEANIA 

Comprises all the islands and archipelagos in the Pacific Ocean 
and is usually divided into the four great sections of Malaysia, 

92 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

Micronesia, Melanesia or Australasia, and Polynesia. Total 
area—4,211,093 square miles. Population—39,161,370. 

I Malaysia is usually considered as part of Asia under the “East Indian Archi¬ 
pelago,” but here it is included with Oceania. Chief islands—Sumatra, 179,290 
square miles; population, 1884,2,948,715. Java, 50,800 square miles; population, 
20,931,654. Borneo, 284,918 square miles; population, 1,858,000. Celebes, 77,179 
square miles; population, 933,823. Moluccas, 20,429 square miles; population, 

{ 52,580. Philippines, 114,219 square miles ; population, 5,636,232. Lesser Dutch 
slands, 42,489 square miles; population, 2,000,000. The total area of its islands is 
769,324 square miles, and the population 34,661,000. 

II. Micronesia includes the Caroline and Pelew Islands, 1,450 square miles; 
population, 36,000. Mariannes, 443 square miles; population, 8,665. Gilbert 
Islands, 165 square miles ; population, 35,200. Marshall Islands, 154 square miles; 
population, 11,600. Total area, 1,322 square miles ; population, 01,465. 

III. Melanesia or Australasia comprises the great islands of Australia, 2,948,- 
798 square miles; population,' 1885, 2,631,553. Tasmania, 26,215 square miles; 
population, 137,2x1. New Zealand, 104,403 square miles; population, 578,482. 
Fiji Islands, 8,048 square miles: population, 126,000. New Guinea, 311,580 square 
miles; population, 2,500,000. New Caledonia and Loyalty Islands, 7,644 square 
miles; population, 60,703. Solomon Islands, etc., 23,546 square miles; population, 
252.350- Total area, 3,430,234 square miles ; population, 4,229,155. 

IV. Polynesia —Chief groups, Friendly Islands, 384 square miles; population, 
25,000. Samoa Islands, 1,073 square miles; population, 36,800. Society Islands, 
636 square miles ; population, 16,300. Marquesas, 491 square miles ; population, 
5,776. Sandwich Islands, 6,558 square miles ; population, 57,985. Total area, 10,- 
313 square miles; population, 179,550. 


TABLE OF EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS. 


Country. 

Area in Square Miles. 

Population. 

British, ... 

3 , 169.389 

3 , 223,041 

Dutch, ... 

718,800 

28 , 500,000 

Spanish, 

116,250 

5 , 680,665 

German, 

88,650 

343,600 

French, 

9,104 

85,753 

Portuguese,- 

6,290 

300,000 


AUSTRALIA. —Greatest length, Cape Byron (153° 38' E.) to 
Steep Point (113 0 E.), 2,400 miles. Greatest breadth, Cape 
York (io° 40' S.) to Cape Wilson (39 0 10' S.) 2,000 miles. Area 
—2,948,798 square miles (Victoria, 87,884 square miles; New 
South Wales, 310,700 square miles ; Queensland, 668,224 square 
miles; South Australia, 903,690 square miles; West Australia, 
978,300 square miles). The surface is for the most part a level 
plateau, with a mean elevation of 1,180 feet above sea level. 
A large part of the interior, particularly in the west, consists of 
sandy and stony desert. The mountainous region is almost ex¬ 
clusively confined to the eastern and southeastern coasts, where, 
at an average distance of sixty miles, a belt of about 150 miles 
in width is formed. The only great river system is that of 
the Murray, 1,550 miles long, with a drainage area of 270,000 
square miles. Inland salt lakes are a characteristic feature of 
the continent, the chief being Lakes Eyre, Torrens, Gairdner 

93 









6 


E 


’* Pigeon River 0 




A 


Linggold 


p Trenton ! 


B 


' * 1 ■ » ^ «• 1 -■ l 

Cohutta Clayton 

Dalton ° Morgantown 
° Spring Place 
Ellijay ° Clarkesville 

Dawsonville j J 

"Jasper o o Xula/A Carne«\ill 

Gaines V 

• o* e y-^pton Canton 

^pa^WUe^jph^t ^^‘7 J eB ? rson J Et 

Athens 


Green v/y 

jP 


Cedar 


Bqj 


o 

oBowers 




erton 


l Calhou 

Rxjwn- y ---- «> ^ r . 

Joq 7 ej 

tv ^ ., H . I „Lawr™WA theV ” 

. . UW V^^W^^ 03 weUJc ( Mon&eS ? Lexington ,\Sb 0 lnt(!a 
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5 rc V Wasl i in S ton 

r A_-ll # <W . tY ^ T 0 ra w fo r d s Y i 11 o 0 

CarrolltoiK^v^FaiHur^ j^adisor^ 0 ^^.,^ ^ 


MAP OF 

GEORGIA 

Population — -1,542,359 
( 0 n\\\ rea so.miles —#8,980 

y 


o 


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4> 


t""* • Nfcwmao' 


4 


MHlen 

o Syivama 


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ti, \ /La/irange /BuneVv. F J Hv ^ iUcd >H(^n.Uraville Y/LouiSYiUe 

ijltoBf Talbottkr\ Wrightsville 

BostickV W ^n.bo^^ktesboro^' 

C^“ b "Wthorpe (f> ° S X 

J«—^Ruena Yista° 0 rJflawkins Dubois 

Kr EUaV. /T „ X \ JiMt. v ernor. '-savanna] 

Lu4l 0 P -r> /incus EastW>\^cRac <j> ^.U 

xv cotS ctowa Smjthville 0 *Y^ua VLumber Cy. J^-^^fHines V. ° 

S Abbeville -w-^^ ^^ohnjt^n’s SU.ffljf; 

■S lAsburgh ""* 

^Isabella o V "Dougin 'xJcsupN<' \parie&>l 
^ organo—^ \ Ri»^t«hc ft /\/bruih 

‘-kely „ sy Baconton Enigma 


o Springfielc 
Icelsioi 


XGaines Albany 


1^‘oJ 


Camilla 


Nashville 
° Moultrie ° 


0 tfx3£ Valdosta 


ilquitt 

DalobtlLJ^^ 

t*-— - Qu itman ~° ^ 

Chattaho</hie''\. “——-— 

f! 


■o ^ JVay Cross 

otucr ^ x 1 

Racopond' 

Du Pont 


tm 


TraderscHiH^ 
Staten V. — 'EzT 


Si 


H 


. Tallahassee 

x \° T? 

r..i.. V XX 


L 

St. Marks 


Baldwi 


Rake 
Cy. JJ 


ac£¥^ 


1 


6 


GEORGIA ranks second among the States in rice and sweet po¬ 
tatoes, third in cotton and molasses, fourth in sugar, seventh in 
mules, tenth in hogs, thirteenth in population. First settlement, 
by English, at Savannah, 1733. One of the thirteen original States. 


94 
































^WHse* / , ' G&rdcnWalley-w;' - 7ffo ' , ^rj Cr.® J Lava / \ 

Fayetw.Store [ Jordan Creek C amaa Cr? c Elgin , 

(f i * 

jfepWXO L%TjC#‘ R™A S/ cRiverside'''\ y/ I / 

P'WEthels0 Bfaekfoot? \ I $) 

»V „ Mountain Homep^ Bradford " i V*' 

^/ffiSasFk. Q 


H 


H | \T. u * - ^ — ~~ rt iy xyis' rs *' 

ReVnoldsCrv Av 0 Mountai^TLme^.'Bradford 

O [ o ” XjXl^ spi!5^ 

C i o Ca3tleCf%P^ 

U Silver /r, °Btut 

V , Cv. .. \Y* 


lovra J 


silver ♦f, ~ x5runeau j'S^almon Falls Pum\st Sdi?• W 

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NEVA D |a 



IDAHO ranks sixth among the States and Territories in gold, 
seventh in silver, fortv-fifth in population. First settlement, by 
Americans, in 1842. Organized as a Territory in 1863. Population, 
1887, territorial census, 143,669. 


95 


























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


and Amadeus. North Australia and the north part of Queens¬ 
land lie in the torrid zone and have a mean temperature of 78° 
F. In the temperate zone extreme temperatures prevail. Bris¬ 
bane, maximum 102 0 ; minimum 40 0 F. Sydney, average 6i° F. 
Melbourne, maximum 105 0 ; minimum 30 0 F. Adelaide, maxi¬ 
mum 110 0 ; minimum 35 0 F. Perth, average 65° F. 

NEW SOUTH WALES —Is the oldest of the Australasian col¬ 
onies. Area—310,700 square miles. Population—Estimated 
1,022,767, exclusive of 7,984 aborigines. Religion—Protestants, 
516,512 ; Roman Catholics, 207,606 ; Jews, 3,266. Government 
—Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, 
assisted by a Cabinet of 10 Ministers. Legislative, the Parlia¬ 
ment consisting of the Legislative Council of 52 members, and 
the Legislative Assembly of 122 members. Education—In 1886 
there were 1 university (Sydney), attended by 340 students ; 3 
colleges and one grammar school with 480 scholars ; 647 private 
schools with 38,766 pupils ; and 2,250 schools under the Depart¬ 
ment of Public Instruction with 186,126 scholars. 

VICTORIA. —Area—87,884 square miles. Population—Esti¬ 
mated 1,027,749, exclusive of 594 aborigines. Religion, 1881— 
Protestants, 613,183; Roman Catholics, 203,480; Jews, 4,330. 
Government—Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British 
Crown, assisted by an Executive Ministry of 10 members. 
Legislative, the Parliament, composed of the Legislative Coun¬ 
cil of 42 members, and the Legislative Assembly of 86 members. 
Education—Free, secular and compulsory. There were, 1885, 1 
university at Melbourne with 2 affiliated colleges attended by 
444 students, 1846 state-aided schools attended by, in 1886, 230,- 
576 pupils, and 707 private schools with 44,059 scholars. 

QUEENSLAND. —Area—668,224 square miles. Population— 
(Estimated), 354,596 (aborigines about 20,000). Religion—1886, 
Protestants, 217,991; Roman Catholics, 77,077; Jews, 724. 
Government—Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British 
Crown, assisted by an Executive Council of 7 ministers. Legis¬ 
lative, the Parliament consisting of the Legislative Council of 39 
members, and the Legislative Assembly of 59 members. The 
defence forces comprise a volunteer corps of from 3,000 to 4,000 
men, two gunboats and one torpedo boat. Education—Free and 
secular. In 1886 there were 7 grammar schools attended by 565 
pupils ; 108 private schools with 8,177 pupils ; and 479 public 
elementary schools with 58,939 scholars. 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA. —The name South Australia would 
appear to imply that this colony is confined to the south of the 
continent, but on the contrary it extends to the farthest north, 
under the name of the Northern Territory. Area—90309,6 

96 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


square miles. Population—Estimated 313,355 (exclusive ab¬ 
origines). Religion—Church of England, 75,812 ; Roman Cath¬ 
olics, 42,628 ; and Wesleyan Methodists, 42,103. Government— 
Executive, the Governor, appointed hy the British Crown, and 
an Executive Council of 6 members. Legislative, the Parlia¬ 
ment consisting of the Legislative Council with 24 members, 
and the House of Assembly with 52 members. Education—The 
system of education is liberal, compulsory, state-aided, and 
secular. There were, 1885, 1 university (Adelaide) with 150 stu¬ 
dents, 472 public schools, attended by 49,664 pupils, and 363 
private schools with 13,524 scholars. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. —This, the largest of the Australa¬ 
sian colonies, includes all that portion of Australia situated to 
the westward of 129 0 East long. Area—978,300 square miles. 
Population—1886, 39,584. Religion—Protestants, 20,613; Roman 
Catholics, 8,413. Government—Executive, the Governor, ap¬ 
pointed by the British Crown, assisted by an Executive 
Council of 6 members. Legislative, the Legislative Council 
composed of 9 nominated and 17 elected members. Education 
—State-aided, secular, and compulsory. There are 2 grammar 
schools, 77 elementary schools, attended by 3,192 pupils, and 17 
assisted schools with 1,287 scholars. 

TASMANIA .—This island in the South Pacific Ocean is situ¬ 
ated between the parallels of 40 0 33' and 43 0 40' S. lat., and 144 0 
40' and 148° 23' meridians E. long., at the southeastern extremity 
of the Australian mainland, from which it is separated by Bass 
Strait, about 150 miles wide. Area—26,215 square miles. Popu¬ 
lation—1887, 137,211 (aborigines quite extinct). Religion— 
Protestants, 102,551; Roman Catholics, 30,516; Jews, 316. 
Government—Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British 
Crown, assisted by an Executive Council of 4 members. Legis¬ 
lative, the Parliament, composed of the Legislative Council of 
18 members, and the House of Assembly of 36 members. Edu¬ 
cation—Compulsory. There are 16 superior schools or colleges. 
Primary education is administered by a department under which 
are 209 public elementary schools, attended by 16,014 scholars. 

NEW ZEALAND.— Situated about 1,200 miles to the south¬ 
east of Australia, consists of a group of three principal islands, 
called respectively, the North, South, and Stewart Islands, and 
several islets mostly uninhabited. Area—104,403 square miles. 
(North Island, 45,687 square miles ; South Island, 57,313 square 
miles ; Stewart Island, 1,300 square miles). Population—1886, 
578,482 (exclusive of 41,969 Maoris). Religion—Protestants, 
461,340; Roman Catholics, 79,020; Jews, 1,559. Government- 
Executive, the Governor, appointed by the British Crown, as- 

97 



ILLINOIS ranks first in corn, wheat, oats, meat packing, lum¬ 
ber traffic, malt and distilled liquors and miles of railway; second 
in rye, coal, agricultural implements and hogs; fourth in popula¬ 
tion, manufactures, iron and steel and cattle. First settlement, by 
French, Kaskaskia, 1682. Admitted to the Union, 1818. 


93 



































































INDIANA ranks second in wheat, fourth in corn, hogs and agri¬ 
cultural implements, sixth in coal and population, seventh in cattle 
and miles of railway. First settlement, by French, at Vincennes, 
1730. Admitted to the Union, 1816. 

























































THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

sisted by the Ministry of 7 members. Legislative, the Governor 
and the “General Assembly,” composed of the Legislative 
Council of 54 members, and the House of Representatives with 
95 members. Education—Compulsory, secular and free. In 
1885, there were 3 colleges affiliated with the University of New 
Zealand, attended by 1,075 students ; 23 grammar schools with 
2,358 pupils; 288 private schools with 12,473 pupils; and 1,054 
state schools with 105,234 scholars. 

NEW GUINEA is the largest island in the world, if we ex¬ 
clude Australia, and lies some 80 miles to the north of Queens¬ 
land. All the land to the west of 141 0 E. long, is claimed by the 
Dutch. East of this, New Guinea has been divided between 
Britain and Germany, the boundary line running in a direction 
from northwest to southeast, the northern portion belonging to 
Germany and the southern part to Britain. 

BRITISH NEW GUINEA. 

Area—86,457 square miles. Population—135,000 (total popu¬ 
lation of New Guinea, 2,500,000). Government—Special and 
Deputy Commissioners who reside at Port Moresby, the seat of 
administration and only port of entry for goods, etc. 

GERMAN NEW GUINEA. 

In 1885, Germany took possession of the northern part of New 
Guinea, lying to the east of the Dutch, and north of the British 
possessions. This territory was called Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. 
Afterwards the New Britain Islands, and the islands of Bougain¬ 
ville, Choiseul, and Isabel, in the Solomon group, were annexed 
under the name of Bismarck Archipelago. Area—95,653 square 
miles. Population—318,000. The seat of administration is at 
Finschhaven, where the Governor resides. 

THE FIJI ISLANDS. —The Fiji or Viti Archipelago lies 
east of the New Hebrides, and comprises about 225 islands and 
islets, nearly 80 of which are inhabited. Area—8,048 square 
* miles. Population—1887, 126,010, nearly all natives. Religion 
—In 1885, the Wesleyan Mission consisted of 976 churches, and 
279 other preaching-places with an attendance of 104,866; the 
Roman Catholic Mission of 14 churches and 70 chapels with an 
attendance of 9,100. Government—Fiji is a Crown colony of 
Great Britain and its affairs are administered by a Governor and 
Executive Council of 4 members. Laws are prepared by a 
Legislative Council, consisting of 6 official and 6 unofficial mem¬ 
bers, of which the Governor is president. Native administration 
is carried on through the chiefs under the Governor’s super¬ 
vision. Education—Two public schools, state-supported, had 
an attendance, in 1885, of 267. 42,698 scholars are taught by the 

native teachers of the Wesleyan Mission. The Roman Catholic 

100 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


Missions conduct 84 native schools with 1,040 scholars. The 
chief exports are sugar, copra and cotton. 

AFRICA 

Forms the vast southwestern peninsula of the Old World, 
being joined to Asia by the narrow isthmus of Suez. Greatest 
length, 5,000 miles. Greatest breadth, 4,600 miles. No other 
land division on the globe has such a rounded and compact 
outline. Access to the interior is rendered difficult by the general 
absence of gulfs and large inlets. The coast line measures 16,000 
miles, or 720 square miles of surface to each mile of coast. Area 
—About 11,000,000 square miles, being three times that of Eu¬ 
rope, or one-fifth of the land surface of the globe. Population— 
No definite figures exist for the larger part of Africa, but the 
population is estimated at about 200,000,000, or over one-seventh 
of the inhabitants of the world. Climate—Only the northern 
shores and the southern extremity of the continent have a mean 
temperature of less than 68° F. with winter rains. From 18 0 N. 
lat. to 20° S. lat. extends the region of tropical rains ; maximum 
temperature in Khartoum, 115 0 F. The rainless regions are the 
Sahara and the Kalahari. 

SOUTH AFRICA. —The southern extremity of Africa, washed 
by the Atlantic Ocean on the west and by the Indian Ocean on 
the south and east, comprises the colonies and protectorates of 
Great Britain, the Dutch republics, and various less important 
divisions. 

CAPE COLONY 


Is a British possession. Executive, the Governor and Exec¬ 
utive Council. Legislative, the Legislative Council of 22 mem¬ 
bers and House of Assembly of 74 members. 


NATAL. 


The Government of Natal is administered for the British 
Crown by a Governor, assisted by an Executive Council and a 
Legislative Council of 30 members. 

SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC. 


Government—Under the suzerainty of the British Crown. 
Executive vested in the President. Legislative in the Volksraad 
of 44 members. 

ORANGE FREE STATE. 


Government—Executive, the President assisted by an Exec¬ 
utive Council. Legislative, the Volksraad of 56 members. 

CENTRAL AFRICA.—With the rapid advance which explora¬ 
tion has made in Central Africa within recent years, there has 
followed a great rivalry among European nations for colonies 
and protectorates. Since the founding of the Congo Free State, 

101 



THE INDIAN TERRITORY was originally set apart as a reser¬ 
vation for peaceful tribes. Organized in 1S34, but under different 
forms of government from the other Territories. The lands are 
held in common by the Indians, and whites can hold only through 
marriage with Indians. Grazing and agriculture are the leading 
industries. Oklahoma was opened to white settlers in 1889. 


























103 































THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

international commissions have distributed native territory so 
freely, that in a short time but few of the original states will 
remain. 

CONGO FREE STATE. 

In 1885, the Congo Free State was constituted and defined by 
the International Conference held at Berlin. It was declared 
neutral and free to the trade of all nations, and has been suc¬ 
cessively recognized by all the leading countries of the world. 
The state is placed under the sovereignty of Leopold II., King 
of the Belgians, and is governed by an Administrator-General, 
who resides at Boma, the capital. Area, 800,000 square miles. 
Population, 24,000,000. Annual grant from Leopold II., $200,- 
000. 

• EASTERN EQUATORIAL AFRICA. 

A commission was appointed in 1886, by Britain and Germany, 
to fix the boundaries of Zanzibar with reference to German ter¬ 
ritory. They agreed that Zanzibar is to possess a strip of coast 
from Cape Delgado to the Tana River, and extending ten miles 
inland, with several ports north of the latter ; that Germany is 
to have, as a sphere of influence, the country stretching from the 
Rovuma River, northward to and including Kilimanjaro ; and 
that Britain’s sphere embraces the country between Kilimanjaro 
and tne Tana River. 

Zanzibar—Area, 9,190 square miles (Zanzibar Island, 614 
square miles ; Pemba, 372 square miles ; Mafia, 210 square 
miles ; Mainland, 8,000 square miles). Population, 250,000. 
Imports, 1883, $6,000,000 ; Exports, $4,000,000. 

Germany—Protectorates, Wito Land, 5,200 square miles ; 
Usagara, etc., 20,700 square miles ; territory in which protect¬ 
orates may be established, 122,800 square miles. 

British territory in which protectorates may be established, 
72,000 square miles. 

THE PORTUGUESE COLONIES 
South of the Equator are named, respectively, Angola and 
Mozambique. The former, on the west coast, extends from the 
Cunene River to the mouth of the Congo and includes the small 
territories of Cabinda and Landana, north of the latter. Area, 
115,000 square miles; Population, 1,000,000. Mozambique ex¬ 
tends from Cape Delgado to Delagoa Bay, and up the lower 
Zambesi, but only a few isolated points are actually occupied. 
Area, 80,000 square miles. Population, 600,000. 

FRENCH COLONIES. 

Equatorial France comprises the Gaboon and Ogowe-Congo 
regions, which, as defined at the Berlin Conference, have an 

104 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

area of 174,000 square miles ; with about 1,700,000 inhabitants. 
Imports (Gaboon), 1883, $840,000 ; exports, $1,480,000. 

GERMAN COLONIES. 

On the southwest coast Luderitz Land comprises all the land 
between the Cunene and Orange Rivers (with the exception of 
Walvisch Bay), and the interior lands acquired by treaty. Area, 
200,000 square miles, with about 236,000 inhabitants. 

EGYPT. —Previous to 1884 the Khedive claimed authority 
over territories extending southward as far as the Equator. But 
within the last few years the inhabitants of these equatorial 
provinces have rebelled against the authority of the Egyptian 
Government. As a result these districts have been abandoned, 
and Akashe, above Wady Haifa, about 800 miles up the Nile 
from Cairo, has been provisionally agreed upon as the boundary 
of Egypt on the south. On the north it is limited by the Medi¬ 
terranean Sea ; on the east by Arabia and the Red Sea ; and on 
the west by Tripoli and the Libyan Desert. Religion—500,000 
Copts, descendants of the old Egyptians, who are Christians ; 
91,000 foreigners, also Christians; rest Mohammedan. Gov¬ 
ernment—Egypt is nominally a vassal state of the Porte, to 
which it pays a yearly tribute of £695,792, but practically it is 
independent under the rule of an hereditary Khedive or Viceroy. 
The administration is now carried on by native Ministers, sub¬ 
ject to the ruling of the Khedive, and under the supervision of 
England. A Legislative Council consisting of 30 members has 
recently been formed, but its power is very limited. Education 
—Numerous elementary and secondary schools are found 
throughout the country, from which the pupils pass to special 
colleges. 

THE SUEZ CANAL. —From remote ages the Isthmus of 
Suez has been traversed by a canal following nearly the line of 
the present one ; nothing certain, however, seems to be known 
as to who was its first constructor, but the credit is generally 
given to Pharaoh Necho, who reigned about 600 b.c. It, in 
course of time, got silted up with sand, but was cleared out by 
Trajan in the second century a.d., and again in 767. The 
Emperor Napoleon desired to reconstruct the canal, and had the 
isthmus surveyed, but nothing was done till M. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, in 1854, obtained permission from the Viceroy of Egypt 
to construct a canal, uniting the Mediterranean and Red Seas. 
A company was formed to carry out his views, two-fifths of the 
capital being furnished by the Viceroy, and the remainder in 
Europe, chiefly in France. The work was commenced in i860, 
and on September 28, 1869, M. Lesseps sailed in a small steamer 
through it. The canal runs north and south from Port Said to 

105 



KANSAS ranks fifth among the States in cattle, corn and rye, 
seventh in hay, ninth in hogs, horses, wheat and coal, twenty-first 
in population. The first settlers in Kansas were Americans. Ad¬ 
mitted to the Union in 1861. 


106 

























KENTUCKY ranks first in tobacco, fourth in malt and distilled 
liquors, sixth in hogs, seventh in corn, eighth in rye, coal, mules 
and population. First settlers, English, Boonesboro, i 77 S* Ad¬ 
mitted to the Union, 1792. TENNESSEE ranks second in peanuts, 
third in mules, sixth in tobacco, seventh in copper and hogs, ninth 
in corn and cotton, twelfth in population. First settlers, English, 
Fort London, 1757. Admitted to Union, 1796. 


107 





















THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


Suez; the length from sea to sea is 99 miles, with a width of 327 
feet for 77 miles, and of 196 for the remaining 22 miles; the depth 
is 26 feet. In November, 1875, the British Government pur¬ 
chased from the Khedive the original shares held by him for 
£3,976,582. It is now proposed to widen the canal to 66 metres. 
The canal has reduced the distance from London to India from 
11,379 miles to 7,628, a saving of 36 days on the voyage by the 
Cape. The number of vessels that passed through the canal in 
1886 was 3,100. The tonnage, 8,183,313 ; the receipts £2,241,095. 

MAURITIUS. —An island lying in the Indian Ocean, and a 
possession of Great Britain, 500 miles east of Madagascar, in¬ 
cludes within its government, as dependencies, the Seychelles 
Group, Rodriguez, and Diego Garcia Islands, and about seventy 
other islets. Area—713 square miles (with dependencies, 1,025 
square miles.) Population—1887, 368,415. Religion—108,000 
Roman Catholics and 8,000 Protestants. The Government is ad¬ 
ministered by the Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 5 
members, and a Legislative Council of 27 members. Education— 
One college with 145 students, and 140 primary schools, attended 
by 15,792 pupils in 1886. Government grant in 1886, £42,943. 

ST. HELENA. —A solitary island situated in the South Atlan¬ 
tic, 760 miles from the nearest land, Ascension. Area—47 square 
miles. Population—1883, 5,085. It is controlled for Great Britain 
by a Governor, aided by an Executive Council of 4 members. 

NORTH AMERICA 

Forms the northern and larger part of the New World ; the 
greater portion of it is almost entirely confined to the north 
temperate zone. Greatest length, 4,400 miles. Greatest breadth, 
3,800 miles. The outline, more especially in the north, where it 
takes the form of an achipelago of islands, is very much inter¬ 
sected and broken by the numerous inlets of the sea. Excluding 
Arctic America and Greenland (1,338,500 square miles) the area 
is about 8,000,000 square miles. In a continent extending over 
about 65 degrees of latitude and nearly twice as many of longi¬ 
tude, great varieties of climate are necessarily met with. While 
the Pacific shores have generally a milder climate than those of 
the Atlantic, the average temperature of the continent is lower 
than that of corresponding latitudes in the Old World. 

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. —Within the Dominion of 
Canada is included all the land lying north of the United States, 
with the exception of Alaska, Newfoundland, and Labrador. 
Exclusive of the Arctic Islands, the total area is 3,420,777 square 
miles. Population—1881 (census), 4,324,810. 1889 (estimated), 

5,000,000. French, 1,298,930; Irish, 957,403; English, 881,300; 

108 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


Scotch, 699,863; Germans, 254,320; Indians (1885), 129,525. 
Religion—No state church. In 1881, there were 1,791,982 Ro¬ 
man Catholics; 2,422,285 Protestants (Presbyterians, 676,165; 
Church of England, 574,818; Methodists, 1,042,980); Jews, 2,393. 
Government—Executive authority vested in the British Crown, 
and exercised in its name by a Governor-General, aided by a 
Privy Council. Legislative, vested in the Parliament, composed 
of the Senate with 78 members, and the House of Commons 
with 215 members. Education—24 colleges with 2,000 students. 
In 1884, there were 730 private and high schools with 88,593 
pupils, and 15,000 public and elementary schools with 904,600 
pupils. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA, situated on the west coast of North 
America, comprises the territory between the Rocky Mountains 
and the Pacific Coast, together with Vancouver Island and Queen 
Charlotte Islands. Area—341,305 square miles. Population— 
Estimated, 1886, 60,000. Government—Lieutenant-Governor and 
Executive Council of 4 members, together with the Legislative 
Assembly of 25 members. Education—Twelve high and su¬ 
perior schools with 2,283 pupils, and 71 oublic schools with 2,188 
pupils. 

NEW BRUNSWICK has an area of 27,174 square miles. 
Population, 1881—321,233 (1576 Indians). Government—Ad¬ 
ministered by a Lieutenant-Governor, assisted by an Executive 
Council, a Legislative Council of 18 members, and a Legisla¬ 
tive Assembly of 41 members. Education—Besides King’s Col¬ 
lege at Fredericton, and numerous grammar schools, there were, 
in 1886, 1,515 public schools with 61,802 pupils. 

MANITOBA, formerly the Red River Settlement, was formed 
into a distinct province in 1870, and admitted into the Confeder¬ 
ation in the same year. It is situated in the center of the conti¬ 
nent. Area—60,520 square miles. Population—1881, 65,954 
(1886, 108,640). Government—Administered by a Lieutenant- 
Governor, assisted by an Executive Council of 5 members and a 
Legislative Assembly of 35 members. Education—Nine high 
schools with 400 pupils, and' 394 elementary schools with 12,694 
pupils. 

NORTH-WEST TERRITORY.— This province comprises 
nearly the whole of British North America from the boundary 
of the United States to the most northerly part of the con¬ 
tinent, and from the western shores of Hudson Bay to the 
Rocky Mountains, with a total area of 2,553,337 square miles, 
and an estimated population of 79,293, of whom 25,000 are In¬ 
dians. 


109 


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MAP OP 

LOUISIANA 

Population 1 ) 39,946 
Area 45,420 

1 


LOUISIANA ranks first among the States in sugar and molasses, 
third in rice, seventh in cotton, ninth in salt, twenty-second in 
population. The first settlement was in 1699, by French, at Iber¬ 
ville. Admitted to the Union in 1812. 


110 



























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MAP OF 

MAINE 

Population_B48.936 

Area sq. miles. _ _ _ 29,885 


6 


MAINE ranks fifth among the States in buckwheat and copper, 
eighth in hops and potatoes, eleventh in hay, twenty-seventh in 
population. The first settlers were French, at Bristol, 1625. Ad¬ 
mitted to the Union in 1820. 


Ill 
























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

Out of this vast territory, in 1882, the Dominion Government 
formed four provisional districts: Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta, Athabasca. The Government is vested in a Lieutenant- 
Governor and a Council of 20. Both Assiniboia and Alberta 
are traversed by the Canadian Pacific Railway, and settlement 
is rapidly taking place along its route. 

NOVA SCOTIA. —Nova Scotia, a peninsula of North America 
on its east side, forms with the island of Cape Breton one of the 
provinces which constitute the Dominion of Canada. Area— 
20,907 square miles. Population, 1881—440,572, (2138 Indians). 
Government—Administered by a Lieutenant-Governor, aided by 
an Executive Council, a Legislative Council of 21 members, and 
a Legislative Assembly of 38 members. Education—There are 
6 colleges, the best endowed being King’s College at Windsor, 
several high schools, and 2,111 public schools attended by 86,858 
pupils in 1886. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. —Prince Edward Island lies 
in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, between 
New Brunswick and Cape Breton, to the north of Nova Scotia, 
from which it is separated by Northumberland Strait. Area 
—2,133 square miles. Population, 1881—108,891 (323 Indians). 
Government—Vested in a Lieutenant-Governor and an Execu¬ 
tive Council, a Legislative Council of 13 members, and a Legis¬ 
lative Assembly of 30 members. Education—20 high and 
superior schools with 831 pupils, and 437 public schools attended 
by 22,414 pupils in 1886. 

NEWFOUNDLAND. —The island of Newfoundland forms a 
British province, distinct as yet from the Dominion of Canada. 
Its Government extends over the mainland strip of Labrador, 
from which it is separated by the Strait of Belle Isle, 12 miles 
across. Area—42,000 square miles. Population, 1884—193,121. 
Religion—Church of England, 69,000; Roman Catholics, 75,254; 
Wesleyans, 48,787. Government—The Government is admin¬ 
istered by a Governor, appointed by the British Crown, assisted 
by an Executive Council (not exceeding 7 members), a Legis¬ 
lative Council (not exceeding 15 members), and a House of 
Assembly consisting of 36 representatives. Education—1885, 
402 aided schools attended by 27,322 pupils. 

LABRADOR, a dependency of Newfoundland, forms the 
most easterly part of America. The coast is mainly fre¬ 
quented for the sake of the seal and cod, and when those fisher¬ 
ies are in progress, the population of the country (normally 
about 4000) is raised to upwards of 25,000. 

THE UNITED STATES.— On the north the United States 

112 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

are bounded by British North America; on the west by the 
Pacific Ocean; on the south by Mexico,, the Gulf of Mexico, and 
Florida. Channel; and on the east by the Atlantic Ocean and New 
Brunswick. Extent nearly as large as Europe; total area, 3,602,- 
990 square miles. Alaska, 577,390 square miles. Rivers and lakes 
occupy 38,400 square miles. Population—1880 census, 50,497,057 
(1889, estimated, 60,000,000). Nationalities, 1880— Native born , 
43475 > 8 4 °; Colored population, 6,580,793; Indians , 339,098; 
Chinese , 105,465; Germans , 1,966,742; Irish, 1,854,571 ‘,Canadians, 
7 I 7 > I 57 ; English, 662,676; Scanditiavians, 440,262; Scotch, 170,- 
136; Welsh, 83,302; and 519,254 other nationalities. Education— 
There are 365 universities with 69,728 students, 1,617 private 
schools with 160,137 pupils, and 11,169,923 scholars in the public 
schools, maintained at a cost of $110,000,000 in 188554,923,431 
adults could not read and 6,239,958 were unable to write in 1880. 
In South Carolina, Louisiana, Alabama and Georgia 45 per cent, 
could not read; adult colored people, 70 per cent, illiterate. 

North Atlantic States.— Connecticut, Maine, Massa¬ 
chusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont.—Great for¬ 
ests and rapid streams, affording abundant water-power, have 
placed lumbering and shipbuilding among the foremost industries 
of this section. Maine alone produces annually sawed timber to 
the value of $12,000,000, while, during 1882, 120 vessels of 61,- 
296 tons were built in the same State. 

Middle Atlantic States. —Dist. of Columbia, Delaware, 
Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania.—Abundance 
of coal and iron, and the great facilities for internal and external 
communication have rendered mining and manufacturing the 
chief industries and largely developed commerce. In 1885, 
48,345,680 tons of coal and 3,813,212 tons of pig and rolled iron 
were produced, while in 1880 there was 90,600 manufactories. 
The import and export trade of New York during 1886 amounted 
to $733,000,000, being 56 per cent, of the entire commerce of the 
country. 

South Atlantic States. —Florida, Georgia, North Caro¬ 
lina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia.—The warm 
climate and wide coast plains offer pre-eminent advantages 
for the cultivation of cotton, tobacco and rice, while orange cul¬ 
ture flourishes in Florida. In 1880, 95,380,000 pounds of rice; 
in 1882, 124,079,780 pounds of tobacco and 2,121,000 bales of 
cotton; and, in 1885, over 200,000,000 oranges were raised in 
these States. 

Northern Division East of the Mississippi. —In this 
division we include Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, 
Ohio and Wisconsin. These States possess great natural 

113 



MARYLAND ranks second among the States in fisheries, fourth 
in coal, seventh in tobacco, eighth in copper, ninth in iron ore, 
twenty-second in population. The first settlement was at St. Mary, 
by English, in 1634. One of the thirteen original States. 


114 












































































MASSACHUSETTS ranks first in cotton, woolen and worsted 
goods, cod and mackerel fishing, second in wealth and commerce, 
third in manufactures, printing and publishing, sixth in iron and 
steel, seventh in population. First settlement, by English, at Ply¬ 
mouth, 1620. One of the thirteen original States. 


115 






























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE . 


advantages of fertile soil and large deposits of valuable 
minerals, so that agriculture, grazing, manufacturing and 
mining have become wide-spread industries. According to 
the agricultural returns for 1886, 569,703,000 bushels of corn, 
161,881,000 bushels of wheat, and 235,693,000 bushels of oats were 
grown; while, in 1887, there were 3,705,660 horses and 8,693,147 
cattle. In 1882, 256,047,310 pounds of tobacco were produced. 
During 1885, 19,587,190 tons of coal and 1,562,566 tons of iron 
were produced. In 1880 the manufacturing establishments num¬ 
bered 68,320. 

Northern Division West of the Mississippi. —In this 
are included Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Missouri, 
Dakota and the Indian Territory. Industries similar to above. 
611,107,000 bushels of corn, 160,006,000 bushels of wheat, and 
217,798,000 bushels of oats were grown during 1886, while the 
farm stock included, in 1887, 3,290,569 horses and 11,518,417 cat¬ 
tle. 7,885,610 tons of coal and 67,955 tons of iron were produced 
in 1885. In 1880 the manufactories numbered 19,720. 

Southern Division. —Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, 
Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas. The warm and moist climate 
and extreme fertility of the soil have made the growth of cotton, 
rice and sugar-cane the foremost industries. During 1882, 
4,794,000 bales of cotton were raised, while Louisiana, Missis¬ 
sippi and Texas produced 25,000,000 pounds of rice in 1880, and 
Louisiana alone 145,986 hogsheads of sugar in 1886-87. 

Highland States and Territories. —This region, em¬ 
bracing Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, New 
Mexico, Utah and Wyoming, has a cool and remarkably drv 
climate, and the valleys afford fine pasture, but the rich mines of 
gold and silver in the mountains render mining the chief occu¬ 
pation. During 1885 gold valued at $14,260,000, silver valued at 
$48,910,000, and 2,471,397 tons of coal were produced. 

The Pacific Coast.— This section embraces California, 
Oregon and Washington Territory. This district with the above 
mentioned is, perhaps, the richest in metals on the globe. Besides 
mining, the chief occupation, the forests of the outer slope furnish 
inexhaustible supplies of timber, so that lumbering has become 
a distinctive industry. The most wealthy and populous State is 
California, which, besides its immense mineral deposits, possesses 
great fertility of soil in its valleys, so that agriculture and the 
cultivation of fruits, both of the temperate and semi-tropical 
zones, are in a most advanced condition. During 1885 gold 
valued at $13,620,000, silver valued at $2,580,000, and 448,095 
tons of coal were produced, while, in 1886, the wheat crop of 
California alone amounted to 36,165,000 bushels, and the 

116 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

lumber produce of Puget Sound (Washington) to $1,200,000 
in 1880. 

• MEXICO. —Area, 751,177 square miles. Population, 10,460,703 
in 1884, 20 per cent, white race, 43 per cent, natives of mixed race, 
and 37 per cent. Indians. Religion—Prevailing religion, Roman 
Catholic, though by law there is toleration of all other religions. 
62 Protestant churches with over 20,000 adherents. Government 
—A confederate republic. Executive, the President. Legisla¬ 
tive, the Congress, consisting of the House of Representatives 
with 227 members, and the Senate with 56 members. Armv— 
20,635 men (peace footing); 164,000 men (war footing). Navy 
>,—7 small vessels. Education—1884, 8,986 elementary schools 
with nearly 500,000 pupils, and 138 higher schools with 17,200 
scholars. Government grant, $3,400,000. Finance—Revenue, 
1886-87 (estimated), $30,625,000; expenditures, 1886—87 (esti¬ 
mated), $26,700,000; national debt, $162,737,650. Imports— 
'1885-86, $41,285,000. Exports—1885-86, $51,500,000. Chief 
articles exported, 1884-85—Precious metals, $13,425,000; textile 
fibers, $4,630,000. Industries—102,240 men employed in mining. 
Between 1821 and 1880 silver to the value of $900,000,000, and 
gold to the value of $4,841,000 were produced. 88 cotton factories 
with 12,846 employes. 

CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES.— The Central 
American States comprise that portion of the narrow belt of 
land adjoining North and South America which extends from 
the southern borders of Mexico, south of the Yucatan peninsula, 
to the beginning of the Isthmus of Panama—Guatemala, San 
Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica and British Hon¬ 
duras. The West Indies are an immense number of islands and 
islets, some of them mere rocks, extending from io° to 27 0 N. 
lat. and from 55 0 30' to 85° W. long. They are divided physi¬ 
cally into three distinct groups, the Bahamas, the Greater An¬ 
tilles and the Lesser Antilles. But politically they are, with a 
few exceptions, divided between European powers—Spain, Great 
Britain, France, Holland and Denmark. 

SOUTH AMERICA 

Forms the southern and lesser part of the great American 
Peninsula, and is joined to North America by the Isthmus of 
Panama, which, at its narrowest part, is only 30 miles broad, 
greatest length, Pt. Gallinas to Cape Horn, 4,700 miles. Greatest 
breadth, Cape Branco to Cape Burica, 3,200 miles. The outline 
is regular and forms a continuous though curved line, not 
greatly serrated or broken into by the sea, except at the south, 
where a large number of islands occur. The coast line measures 
16,500 miles, or 420 miles of surface to each mile of coast. Area 

117 



MICHIGAN ranks first among the States in copper, lumber and 
salt, second in iron ore, third in buckwheat and wool, fifth in hops 
and potatoes, sixth in wheat and barley, seventh in agricultural 
implements, eighth in miles of railway, ninth in population. First 
settlement, by French, at Detroit, 1650. Admitted to the Union, 
1837. 


118 












































MINNESOTA ranks fourth among the States of the Union in 
wheat and barley, eighth in oats and hay, twenty-sixth in popula¬ 
tion. The first settlement in Minnesota was by Americans, Red 
River, 1812. Admitted into the Union in 1858. 


119 



























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


—7,000,000 square miles, nearly twice that of Europe, or one- 
eighth of the entire land surface of the globe. The number of 
inhabitants, according to the latest estimates, amounts to over 
32,000,000. With two-thirds of its area within the torrid zone, 
the average temperature in South America is necessarily higher 
than that of North America. The moisture is also very great, 
attains its maximum in the extreme north, and is everywhere 
greater on the eastern side of the Andes than on the western. 

COLOMBIA. —The Republic of Colombia, as the former Re¬ 
public of New Granada is now styled, is a federal republic of 
nine departments, in the northwest part of South America. The 
most western of these departments is the isthmus connecting the 
two continents. There is no state religion, natives and foreigners 
alike being guaranteed the most complete freedom of worship; 
in Bogota and other towns Protestant churches have been 
opened. Government—Republican. Executive—The President, 
assisted by seven Ministers. Legislative—The Congress, consist¬ 
ing of the Senate and House of Representatives, the former 
composed of 27 members, the latter of 66. Each department 
administers its own finances, etc. The forces comprise a stand¬ 
ing army of 3,000 men. Education—Considerable attention is 
paid to education, there being as many as 1,800 schools giving 
instruction to 75,000 pupils, while an “Escuela Normal/’ or col¬ 
lege for the instruction of teachers, is provided for in the capital 
of each department. Panama Canal—The canal in course of 
construction across the isthmus, between Panama and Colon, 
will have a total length of 47 miles; average depth, 28 feet; mini¬ 
mum width, 72 feet. 

VENEZUELA. —Religion—The Roman Catholic is the state 
religion, but there is toleration of all others, though they are not 
permitted any external manifestations. Only one per cent, of 
the population in 1884 were whites. Government—Republican. 
Executive—The President, assisted by six Ministers and the Fed¬ 
eral Council of 16 members. Legislative—The Congress, com¬ 
posed of the Senate and the House of Representatives, the former 
with 24 senators, the latter with 52 representatives. The Pro¬ 
vinces or States of the Republic have each their own executive and 
legislature. Education—There were (1884) two universities, 19 
federal colleges with 2,538 students; 19 private colleges and 
normal schools with 907 students, and 1,794 schools attended by 
95,000 pupils. 

GUIANA. —Guiana, in its widest sense, certainly embraces the 
whole of the Sierra Parime, thus including districts at present 
belonging to Venezuela and Brazil; but the name is now gener¬ 
ally restricted to the colonial possessions of Britain, Holland 
and France, in this part of the world. British Guiana is by far 

120 


THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 


the most flourishing, agriculturally and commercially, of the 
three colonies. The population embraces 7,538 origines. Gov¬ 
ernment—The Governor, appointed by the British Crown, 
assisted by the Court of Policy of nine members, and a Com¬ 
bined Court containing, in addition to those nine, six financial 
representatives. 

ECUADOR .—Included within the Republic of Ecuador are 
the Galapagos Islands, situated in the Pacific about 730 miles 
due west of the coast. According to the constitution the religion 
of the Republic is Roman Catholic to the exclusion of every 
other. Government—Executive, the President. Legislative, 
the Congress of two houses, the first consisting of two senators 
for each province, and the second of deputies elected by the 
people. Army—About 1,600 men. Education—Only about 
75,000 of the population can read or write. 

PERU. —The population of Peru includes about 350,000 un¬ 
civilized Indians. By the terms of the constitution the Roman 
Catholic is declared the religion of the state, and the public ex¬ 
ercise of any other is prohibited. At the census of 1876 there 
were 5,087 Protestants and 498 Jews. Government—Repub¬ 
lican. Executive, the President, assisted by a Cabinet of 5 
Ministers. Legislative, the Senate and House of Representa¬ 
tives, the former composed of deputies (1 for every 30,000 inhabit¬ 
ants), and the latter of representatives nominated by the pro¬ 
vincial electoral colleges of each department. During the war 
with Chili the army was raised to about 19,000 men; it now 
numbers about 5,900. The fleet consists of 2 cruisers and 2 
small troop ships. Education—By a return of 1880 the facili¬ 
ties provided for education consist of 1 university at Lima, 5 
lesser universities, 45 higher class schools and 650 public and 
private schools with 32,555 pupils. 

BOLIVIA.— Bolivia is the most centrally situated state of 
South America, and, with the exception of Paraguay, is the 
only one without a seaboard. Religion—The mixed races 
forming the population are regarded as at least nominally 
Christian. Government—Republican. Executive, the Presi¬ 
dent, assisted by a Vice-President and a cabinet of 5 Ministers. 
Legislative, the Congress, consisting of the Senate and the 
House of Representatives, both elected by universal suffrage. 
The standing army consists of 1,013 officers and 2,000 men, and 
costs upwards of two-thirds of the public revenue. Education- 
According to a report issued in 1884, the schools and universi¬ 
ties were attended by only 12,000 pupils and students, or about 
5 per cent, of the population of school age. There are four uni¬ 
versities. 


121 



MISSISSIPPI ranks second among the States in cotton, fifth in 
rice, sixth in mules and molasses, seventh in sugar, eighteenth in 
population. The first settlers in Mississippi were French, at Nat¬ 
chez, 1716. Admitted into the Union in 1817. 


122 


































MISSOURI ranks first in mules, third in oxen, hogs, corn and 
copper, fifth in population, sixth in iron ore, wool and horses, 
seventh in oats, eighth in wheat and tobacco, ninth in miles of 
railway, sheep and potatoes. First settlement, French, at Ste. 
Genevieve, 1764. Admitted into the Union in 1821. 


123 




























THE WORLD AND THE UNIVERSE. 

BRAZIL .—The most extensive and most prosperous of the 
South American States. The Roman Catholic is the established 
religion of the state, though all other sects are tolerated. 
Government—Constitutional and hereditary monarchy. Execu¬ 
tive, the Emperor, assisted by a responsible Ministry. Legisla¬ 
tive, the General Legislative Assembly, consisting of the Senate 
with 60 members, and the Chamber of Deputies with 125 mem¬ 
bers. Army—Peace footing, 15,048 men and 6,847 gendarmerie. 
War footing, 32,000 men. Navy—65 ships (9 ironclads) 
manned by 5,788 men. Education—In 1885 there were 5,520 
public, 957 private schools, and 286 “colleges” attended by 435,- 
997 pupils in all. 

PARAGUAY is one of the smallest, and, with the exception 
of Bolivia, the only landlocked state of South America. The 
Roman Catholic is the established religion of the state, but the 
free exercise of other religions is permitted. Government— 
Republican. Executive, the President, assisted by a Cabinet of 
5 Ministers. Legislative, the Congress, composed of the Senate 
and the House of Deputies. The armed defense forces consist 
of 500 men and a fleet of 3 river steamers. Education—In 1885 
there were 99 state public schools, with 3,676 pupils; 50 private 
schools with 1,424 pupils, and a national college with ico 
students. 

URUGUAY is the smallest of the South American States. 
The Roman Catholic is the state religion, but there is complete 
toleration of all sects. Government—Republican. Executive, 
the President, assisted by a council of five members. Legisla¬ 
tive, the parliament, composed of the Senate and the Chamber of 
Representatives, the former consisting of 19 members, the 
latter of 53. The defense forces consist of 3,540 regulars, a 
national guard of 20,000 men, 5 river steamers and 3 gunboats. 
Education—One university at Montevideo, attended in 1886 by 
I >45 2 students; 341 public schools with 28,380 pupils, and, in 
1885, 429 private schools with 20,899 scholars. 

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. —Religion—Roman Catholic, but 
all creeds are tolerated. Government—Republican. Executive, 
the President. Legislative, the National Congress, composed of 
the Senate with 30 members, and the House of Deputies with 
86. Army—7,324 men, exclusive of the national guard of about 
350,000 men. Navy—39 ships (3 ironclads) manned by 
2,150 men. Education—In 1885 there were 2 universities at¬ 
tended by 880 students, various superior schools, 15 lyceums 
with 3,189 pupils, and, in 1886, 3,415 elementary schools with 
180,768 scholars. 

CHILL— Religion—Roman Catholic, but all other religions 

124 


POLAR EXPLORATION. 


are protected. Government—Republican. Executive, the 
President. Legislative, the Senate of 43 members, and the 
Chamber of Deputies of 126. Army-MS^ 10 regulars, and the 
national guard of 53,741 men. Navy—32 ships (3 ironclads) with 
2,385 men. Education—One university and numerous lyceums 
attended, in 1886, by 5,900 students; 532 private schools with 28,- 
242 pupils, and 862 public primary schools with 78,810 scholars. 


Polar Exploration 

Really begins with the search for the northeast passage. With 
this object Willoughby left England with three ships in 1553. 
Nova Zembla was sighted, but the voyage was disastrous, two 
ships were lost and with them perished the first leader of an Arc¬ 
tic expedition. In 1556 another expedition, under Burroughs, 
set out for the same purpose, but without success. The north¬ 
east passage proving impracticable, efforts were directed to the 
northwest. Frobisher sailed in 1576 and discovered Meta In¬ 
cognita, a part of the present Baffin Land. Ten years later 
Davis navigated the strait which bears his name, advancing 
northward to 72 0 N. Barents, a Dutch seaman, made three 
voyages to the northeast. In 1596, on his third voyage, he. dis¬ 
covered Spitzbergen and reached a latitude of 8o° N. Sailing 
thence to Nova Zembla he doubled the north point and wintered 
on the eastern side of the island. Hudson, between the years 
1607-1610, made four voyages; two of these were to the north¬ 
east, and a latitude of 8o° 23' N. was attained. On his third 
voyage he discovered Hudson River, and in the following year, 
1610, the strait and bay since named after him. These dis¬ 
coveries were supplemented in 1616, when Baffin sailed up 
Davis Strait into Baffin’s Bay. During the eighteenth century 
Russian explorations made great progress. The entire northern 
coast of Siberia was gradually discovered, while, in 1728, Bering 
examined the strait between Asia and America, and in 1741 
Liakov, a Russian merchant, the islands now known as New 
Siberia. The numerous expeditions of the present century have 
driven the unknown regions of the north into comparatively nar¬ 
row limits. In 1819 Parry passed through Lancaster Sound and 
wintered on Melville Island; eight years later he sailed to Spitz¬ 
bergen, and traveling .northward on sledges, reached 82° 45' N. 
Of the numerous expeditions which left England in search of 
Franklin, who had sailed in 1845, that under M’Clure in 1850 
was, perhaps, the most important, since the northwest passage 
was then traversed for the first time. In 1853 Kane con¬ 
siderably extended knowledge in Smith Sound, while in 1874 the 
Austrian expedition discovered the archipelago of Franz Josef 
Land. The Nares expedition of 1875-6, passing through Smith 

125 




MONTANA in 1880 ranked fourth among the States and Terri¬ 
tories in silver, fifth in gold, fifteenth in cattle, forty-seventh in 
miles of railway and forty-fourth in population. First settlement, 
by Americans, in 1852. Organized as a Territory in 1864; admitted 
to the Union in 1889. Population, 1888, estimated, 175,000. 


120 




















127 























THE WORTHS LARGEST CITIES. 


Sound, wintered farther north than any previous expedition, and 
a sledding party under Markham reached 83° 20', a latitude only 
surpassed by that of Lockwood, in the Greeley expedition, who, 
in 1882, stood under 83° 24' N. Finally, in 1878, Norden- 
skjold performed in the “Vega” that northeast passage which 
Willoughby had attempted over 300 years before. 


The World’s Largest Cities. 


The following information is often inquired for, and as it may 
be useful in many cases for reference, we have compiled a table 
of the largest cities in the world, with their populations as stated 
by the latest authorities. In the absence of any official census, 
the Chinese cities have simply to be estimated, and, of course, 
must be accepted as an approximation only. We have not given 
any city whose population is below 500,000, though there are 
many we could enumerate which closely approach that figure. It 
will be seen that in the 35 cities tabulated below there are 32,- 
510,319 souls, or nearly the population of the British Isles, a fact 
which cannot be grasped in a moment by any ordinary intellect. 
Aitichi, Japan. 1 , 332,050 Moscow, Russia . 611,974 


Bangkok, Siam . 500,000 

Brooklyn, N. Y. 771,000 

Berlin, Prussia . 1 , 122,330 

Calcutta, India. 766,298 

Canton, China. 1 , 500,000 

Changchoofoo, China i , 000,000 

Chicago, Ill . 1 , 000,000 

Constantinople, T’k’y. 700,000 

Foo-choo, China. 630,000 

Glasgow, Scotland. . 514,048 
Hang-Chow-foo, Ch’a. 600,000 
Hang-Tcheon, China. 

Han-Kow, China. 

King-te-Chiang, Chi’a 
Liverpool, England. . . 

London, England. .. . 3 , 955,819 
Madrid, Spain. 500,900 


800,000 

600,000 

500,000 

573,000 


New York, N. Y.. . 1 , 400,000 

Paris, France. 2 , 269,023 

Pekalonga, Java. 505,204 

Pekin, China. 800,000 

Philadelphia, Pa. 850,000 

St. Petersburg, Russia. 766,964 

Sartama, Japan. 962,917 

Sian, China . 1 , 000,000 

St. Louis, Mo. 500,000 

Tat-Seen-Loo, China 500,000 

Tien-Tsin, China. 950,000 

Tokio, Japan . ... . 987,887 

Tschautchau-fu, Ch’a 1 , 000,000 
Tsin-Tchoo, China. . . 800,000 

Vienna, Austria. 726,105 

Woo-chang, China. .. 800,000 


Estimated Age of the Earth. —According to geologi¬ 
cal computation, the minimum age of the earth since the forma¬ 
tion of the primitive soils is 21,000,000 years—6,700,000 years for 
the primordial formations, 6,400,000 years for the primary age, 
2,300,000 years for the secondary age, and 460,000 years for the 
tertiary age, and 100,000 since the appearance of man upon the 
globe. 


128 






















Cities of the XJ. S. of Over 20,000 Population 


Settl’d 

Population First 
Recorded in Census 

Cities and Towns. 

Population, 

1880. 

Increase 
1870 to 
1880. 

1623 

33,131 

in 

1790 

. .New York, N. Y.. 

1,206,299 

264,007 

1683 

42,520 

ii 

1790 

..Philadelphia, Pa.. 

847,170 

173,148 

1636 

1,603 

a 

1790 

. ..Brooklyn, N. Y.. 

566,663 

170,564 

1830 

4,479 

a 

1840 

.Chicago, Ill. .. 

503,185 

204,208 

1630 

18,038 

ii 

1790 

.... Boston, Mass. .. 

362,839 

112,313 

1764 

1,600 

a 

1810 

.... St. Louis, Mo. .. 

350,538 

39,654 

1682 

13,503 

a 

1790 

...Baltimore, Md... 

332,313 

64,959 

1788 

750 

a 

1800 

. .. .Cincinnati, O. .. 

255,139 

38,900 

1776 

500 

a 

1840 

.San Francisco, Cal. 

233,959 

84,486 

1718 

5,500 

a 

1790 

. .New Orleans, La.. 

216,090 

24,672 

1796 

547 

a 

1810 

.... Cleveland, O. .. 

160,146 

67,317 

1754 

1,565 

a 

1800 

. ...Pittsburgh, Pa... 

156,389 

70,313 

1801 

1,508 

a 

1810 

. . . .Buffalo, N. Y... 

155,134 

37,420 

1791 

3,210 

a 

1800 

. . Washington, D.C. 

147,293 

38,094 

1666 

6,507 

a 

1820 

. .. .Newark, N. J... 

136,508 

31.449 

1778 

200 

a 

1790 

. .. .Louisville, Ky. .. 

123,758 

23,005 

1802 

3,072 

ii 

1840 

. .Jersey City, N. J.. 

120,722 

38,176 

1701 

770 

U 

1810 

.. . Detroit, Mich... 

116,340 

36,763 

1835 

1,700 

ii 

1840 

. . . Milwaukee, Wis.. 

115,587 

44,147 

1636 

6,380 

ii 

1790 

. .Providence,' R. I.. 

104,857 

35,953 

1614 

3,498 

ii 

1790 

.... Albany, N. Y. .. 

90,758 

21,336 

1810 

1,502 

ii 

1820 

. . . Rochester, N. Y .. 

89,366 

26,980 

1645 

1,839 

ii 

1840 

. .. .Allegheny, Pa .. 

78,682 

25,502 

1819 

75 

ii 

1820 

. .Indianapolis, Ind.. 

75,056 

26,812 

1737 

3,761 

ii 

1790 

. . ..Richmond, Va.. . 

63,600 

12,562 

1638 

4,049 

ii 

1800 

. . . New Haven, Ct.. 

62,882 

12,042 

1826* 

6,474 

ii 

1830 

. . . .Lowell, Mass. .. 

59,475 

18,547 

1713 

2,095 

ii 

1800 

. . Worcester, Mass. 

58,291 

17,186 

1752 

3,895 

ii 

1810 

.Troy, N. Y. .. 

56,747 

10,282 

1830 

4,418 

ii 

1860 

. .Kansas City, Mo.. 

55,785 

23,525 

1630 

2,115 

ii 

1790 

. .Cambridge, Mass.. 

52,669 

13,035 

1787 

1,814 

ii 

1820 

. .. Syracuse, N. Y. . 

51,792 

8,741 

1812 

1,450 

ii 

1820 

. .. .Columbus, O. . 

51,647 

20,373 

1792 

7,596 

ii 

1840 

.... Paterson, N. J . . . 

51,031 

17,452 

1832 

1,222 

ii 

1840 

.Toledo, O . 

50,137 

18,553 

1680 

16,359 

ii 

1790 

. .Charleston, S. C.. 

49,984 

1,028 

1803 

6,738 

ii 

1840 

. .Fall River, Mass.. 

48,961. 

22,195 

1849 

13,066 

ii 

1870 

. Minneapolis, Minn 

46,877 

33,821 

1844 

3,000 

ii 

1853 

.... Scranton, Pa.. 

45,850 

10,758 

1779 

5,566 

ii 

1830 

. .. Nashville, Tenn. . 

43,350 

17,485 

1748 

2,385 

ii 

1800 


43,278 

9,348 

1732 

5,268 

ii 

1820 

. .Wilmington, Del.. 

42,478 

11,637 

1635 

3,955 

ii 

1810 

. ..Hartford, Ct.. .. 

42,015 

4,835 


*Date of separation from an older city, 129 





















NEVADA, in the census of 1880, ranks second among the States 
in gold, fourth in silver, thirty-eighth in population. First set¬ 
tled by Americans, immigrants from the other States, in 1850. Ad¬ 
mitted to the Union in 1864. 


130 



















M< 


arnham 


>re\s 


Map of 

NEW HAMPSHIRE 
and 

VERMONT 

Population Area 
New Hampshire 34$,991 

Vermont 3o*2,*i80 9,-3,36 




B 


Ci 


fct. 


m 


W. Enosb'il 


Albans 

\ 

Fletcher 


h~ $ 




Georg 


la 


Dll! 


Essex Jc 

;ton 


Barton 

Cap|pridge Jc, 

* :Py n ^. 

St; Johnsbury, 


pSujttliut f *. Bichcn 

\ f>.' / / . : ; 

id pond i /•$ r , 

0*_— Errol 

Um^agog 

? Stratford.*^ 
St'ark 
'<*rov 


B 


'Dalton %•*: Berl n Falls 


Fe. 


W.Charlotgf™^?* y 

r BKdil 


ew 

aven r *\ v ^‘ 


Rycgate 
Nortlilield 
^VV.ells Riv 


Washington 
Pierces BiJU^e ! 


H 


r-LJ/#'; /Roxburv'""' . VM ? 

Ul.l.lloh.irv r 3Si I ‘ J Newbury j[ „ av ?fgJh^> * y 

iJliddleburj t 7*^v I E.firan\'ille //A p ,$?•*&£-\l / 

L c5 1f, V Bradford // S \ A oodstockS iJLV . \ L-^ , / 

IpTl"f ,P "W-Rantlolpll ]J$ [Warren 

,po,ut Wx4fc.\ i W^r y»U* ^ 

ddison Jc. --^eft^oyalton ff# W^ip^ 

> hTV /r 0rW J. h Plymgut'l 1 /Aossitee 

W^RctlandVj Hartf ord^kite Rive r XsJ,land >iWm<Xee 

<TTr^V4^ ,d W^Mifk Sristol \Wofc) \ ,' 

jranville t u ? JpJr \ _A Claremont Frank lm \ Alton Bay\ \l 

D “ n W ndi : h n.bury Ro "HL yi 

I WaK^f 5 f Be] lows Jr Alstea<1 HennikX/ Lo, ‘W°^>f ls p 
! /h a f||ryV Fa,ls \\\ wa lp .ole N-w£areo Hook X Candl* PoUm 
l^Sbaft^ ^"^Westmoreland 

(Of. ^SW nbUry \//7 X Harn3 >-T\Mam.be S teA 4 "burn /Market J, 
[nning^toil/;ff ra ttleboroj J/Keeney—PeterborQf/G^ffsFalls.-' Eju?terP / 

_rx^ Vernon'd / \r~ / n^t^S.i-^WindhfuVL/ Hainpton/i 



»tei 


iburg-y^ Vern0l \\\ r/ \ r froy / Mijford^ 
Powi^l? HlnsdaWW/^P 0 * 1, V re </ v juJr\ Na** 


.Winchendo; 



Hai^fpton^ 


/ Bradford 


NEW HAMPSHIRE ranks third in manufacture of cotton goods, 
fifteenth in potatoes, thirty-first in population. First settle¬ 
ment, English, at Little Harbor, 1623. VERMONT ranks fourth in 
copper, seventh in hops and buckwheat, thirty-second in popu¬ 
lation. First settlement, English, Fort Dummer, 1764. Vermont 
and New Hampshire are two of the thirteen original States. 


131 






























Cities of the U. S. of Over 20,000 Population .-(Continued.) 


Settl’d 

Population First 
Recorded in Census 

Cities and Towns. 

Population, 

1880. 

Increase 
1870 TO 
1880. 

1628 

1,987 

in 

1830 

. .Camden, N. J. .. 

41,659 

21,614 

1838 

1,112 

U 

1850 

. ..St. Paul, Minn.. . 

41,473 

21,443 

1847* 

8,282 

U 

1850 

. .. Lawrence, Mass. . 

39,151 

10,230 

1796 

383 

44 

1810 

. . .. Dayton, O.... 

38,678 

8,205 

1629 

9,367 

44 

1840 

.Lynn, Mass.... 

38,274 

10,041 

1845 

2,572 

44 

1850 

.Atlanta, Ga. ... 

37,409 

15,620 

1858 

4,759 

44 

1870 


35,629 

30,870 

1852 

1,543 

44 

1860 

. . Oakland, Cal. . . 

34,555 

24,055 

1758 

2,972 

44 

1820 


33,914 

5,110 

1632 

2,244 

44 

1790 

. Portland, Me... 

33,810 

2,397 

1820 

3,360 

44 

1840 

. . .Memphis, Tenn. . 

33,592 

+6.634 

1635 

2,767 

44 

1810 

. .Springfield, Mass.. 

33,340 

6,637 

1730 

615 

44 

1810 

. . Manchester, N. H.. 

32,630 

9,094 

1846 

19,565 

44 

1870 

. . ..St. Joseph, Mo.. . 

32,431 

12,866 

1833 

1,000 

44 

1840 

. Grand Rapids, Mich. 

32,016 

15,509 

16— 

2,668 

44 

1850 

. .. Hoboken, N. J. . . 

30,999 

10,702 

1726 

1,472 

44 

1800 

. . . Harrisburg, Pa. . 

30,762 

7,658 

1774 

914 

4 4 

1810 

. .Wheeling, W. Va. 

30,737 

11,457 

1733 

5,166 

44 

1800 

... Savannah,Ga. . . 

30,709 

2,474 

1854 

1,883 

44 

1860 

... .Omaha, Neb.. . . 

30,518 

14,435 

1680 

3,003 

44 

1810 

. .. .Trenton, N. J... 

29,910 

7,036 

1815 

745 

44 

1830 

. . . .Covington, Ky.. . 

29,720 

5,215 

1817 

250 

44 

1840 

. .. Evansville, Ind.. 

29,280 

7,450 

1819 

5,095 

44 

1850 


29,259 

6,410 

1702 

1,500 

44 

1820 

..... Mobile, Ala.... 

29,132 

+2,902 

1664 

2,500 

44 

1840 

. . . Elizabeth, N. J. . 

28,229 

7,397 

1795 

3,412 

44 

1840 


27,737 

8,091 

1639 

110 

44 

1790 

. . ..Bridgeport, Ct.. . 

27,643 

8,674 

1628 

7,921 

44 

1790 


27,563 

3,446 

1822 

6,902 

44 

1850 

.Quincy, Ill ... 

27,268 

3,216 

1794 

4,282 

44 

1850 

. .Fort Wayne, Ind.. 

26,880 

9,162 

1787* 

3,947 

44 

1820 

. New Bedford, Mass. 

26,845 

5,525 

1816 

2,000 

44 

1840 

. .Terre Haute, Ind.. 

26,042 

9,939 

1718 

6,663 

44 

1840 

. .. .Lancaster, Pa... 

25,769 

5,536 

1842* 

3,540 

(4 

1850 

..Somerville, Mass.. 

24,933 

10,248 

1772 

2,732 

44 

1850 

. .. Wilkesbarre,Pa. . 

23,339 

13,165 

1843 

502 

44 

1850 

. ..Des Moines, la. . 

22,408 

10,373 

1833 

1,300 

44 

1840 


22,254 

3,820 

1837 

13,818 

44 

1870 

... Galveston, Tex. . 

22,248 

8,435 

1705 

8,478 

44 

1820 

.Norfolk, Va.... 

21,966 

2,737 

1793 

5,626 

44 

1840 

.... Auburn, N.Y.. 

21,924 

4,699 

1850* 

3,245 

(4 

1850 

...Holyoke, Mass.. 

21,915 

11,182 

1735 

4,000 

44 

1830 


21,891 

6,502 


* Date of separation from an older city, t Decrease. 


132 

































Cities of the U. S. of Over 20,000 Popnlatioii.-(Cb«fU) 


Settl’d 

Population First 
Recorded in Census 

Cities and Towns, 

Population, 

1880 . 

Increase 
1870 TO 
1880 . 

1836 

600 in 1840 

....Davenport, la.. 

21,831 

1,793 

1738* 

2,290 « 1840 

....Chelsea, Mass... 

21,782 

3,235 

1748 

6,690 “ 1820 

...Petersburg, Va. . 

21,656 

2,706 

1830 

6,820 “ 1850 

. ..Sacramento, Cal., 

21,420 

5,137 

1638 

6,042 “ 1830 

. . ..Taunton, Mass.. . 

21,213 

2,584 

1720 

6,000 “ 1840 

. .. .Oswego, N. Y.. . 

21,116 

206 

1847 

2,854 “ 1870 

Salt Lake City, Utah 

20,768 

7,914 

1803 

2,349 “ 1840 

.... Springfield,O... 

20,730 

8,078 

1836 

1,583 “ 1860 

. . .Bay City, Mich. . 

20,693 

13,629 

1714 

3,488 « 1850 

. . San Antonio, Tex. 

20,5o0 

8,294 

1790 

4,791 “ 1840 

....Elmira, N. Y... 

20,541 

4,678 


15,087 “ 1870 

.Newport, Ky. . . 

20,433 

5,346 

1690 

10,006 “ 1840 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 

20,207 

127 


* Date of separation from an older city. 


The Wonderful Growth of Chicago. 

The population of Chicago in 1830 , was 70 ; 1840 , 4 , 853 ; 1845 , 
12 , 088 ; 1850 , 29 , 963 ; 1855 , 60 , 227 ; I 86 o, 112 , 172 ; 1865 , 178 , 900 ; 
1870 , 298 , 977 ; 1872 , 364 , 377 ; 1880 , 503 , 185 ; 1884 , (estimated) 675 ,- 
000 ; 1885 , (estimated), 727 , 000 ; 1886 , (estimated) 750 , 000 ; 1887 , 
(estimated) 760 , 000 ; 1888 , (estimated) 840 , 000 . 


THE NAMES OF THE STATES. 

Alabama —Indian; meaning “Here we rest.” Arkansas — 
“Kansas,” the Indian name for “smoky water,” with the French 
prefix “arc,” bow or bend in the principal river. California — 
Caliente Fornalla , Spanish for “hot furnace,” in allusion to the 
climate. Colorado — Spanish; meaning “colored,” from the red 
color of the Colorado river. Connecticut —Indian; meaning 
“long river.” Delaware —Named in honor of Lord Delaware. 
Florida —Named by Ponce de Leon, who discovered it in 1512 , 
on Easter Day, the Spanish Pascua de Flores , or “Feast of 
Flowers.” Georgia —In honor of George II. of England. Illi¬ 
nois —From the Indian “illini,” men, and the French suffix 
“ois,” together signifying “ tribe of men.” Indiana —Indian 
land. Iowa —Indian; meaning “beautiful land.” Kansas — 
Indian; meaning “smoky water.” Ke?itucky —Indian ; for “ at 
the head of the river; ” or “ the dark and bloody ground.” Louisi¬ 
ana —In honor of Louis XIV. of France. Maine —From the 
province of Maine, in France. Maryland —In honor of Henri¬ 
etta Maria, queen of Charles I. of England. Massachusetts — 
The place of the great hills (the blue hills southwest of Boston). 

133 





















Hawley 


Goldenfs Bridge 


Scranton 


Pt.Jcrv 


'eckertow: 


BjSL^vill<>JfV)/yNOgdensbur 
/Frcdon / 

lairs town/ Nowi^n/Ogdeirs^^ 
?kntn5Ia /Movei( Min ® 

i /rHfecs: 

JtfVaship'cton Val gum^y 
D^HiardsyilleH ^ jf 

Bridge Elizal 

\ Somfc^ville p ftimfl wll 
'lemington Jc, 

Flemin^on 


lacfkensac] 


ffuUipslmrg' 


unswiew-y, 

V^n > i^rtvill 2 / WH l k y 
Princeton 

Doyles T. ^nnidgton yf^J 
^Vv Ilightstowr 


Frecliol 


TRENTO 


rove 


Faxmingdale 


(BordenVown 
inkora ) Lakew< 


Plnladolph' 


y illiair 
)W Penn *8[Grove 
I Glassl 

[jffif Oakland J^Ehn 

)m ^Salem / 

M Yin 

vXllrlilgotoj/' 

W^oDtfySide 


JHindisville^Egg Har 

/ V 0it y 

y ^^/Absecom . 
Cray’s Lariding_J^^ 


Somer3 

-i'oirtM 


arrington 


Forks 51 ta 


Park 


y <$• map op 

V -NEW JERSEY 

> Population 1,131,116 

Area Sq miles7,455 


NEW JERSEY ranks first in silk goods, zinc and fertilizing marl, 
fourth in iron ore, fifth in iron and steel, sixth in buckwheat, man¬ 
ufactures and soap, seventh in rye, nineteenth in population. 
First settlement, by Dutch, at Bergen, 1620. One of the thirteen 
original States. 


134 

































Bilvertono Q TYagon "Wheel Gap 

Cucliaras] 

i o" _ 

c Pagosa Spr. /Alamosa 
Antonito 


6 

77 

Lron.SpringS 


!^a\ 


■Wallaheo/ / Jica*iU(T^r£vo\ca.ao' 
Tierra A man I la 

ApacheQ ( 
und. ~ 


I _ 

j A r at , q t ; , oe ^_ 

. Tndxan 

i vV 


i Amuniln l 

P«cAfO< I ® 

xd.Ilesrj I 


.. , / dterojDillon Jc. 

> iedras/ Jl fl. r- a 

( C<sDJ?L F^A -- . 

, •TeViiiin(rtjQP 0 ” c 7 0 Cliico Spring] 

<!c-Tnos fcSrfrinsrer-s «Abbott 


Calientei i do Tnos {Springer^ 0 Abbott! 
R R Imbud^/ v---j 

TereasJlancbo Xspanola/p ^ / °| ' RJ, A , 

^ 4^17 VW-HeA Tcquesqu^ 

S'ANTAR^ 


r Casa Salaza I 


San lldefonsoj 
/ 


A 


— Casa Salaza / (\ y | 1'E X ^ V?" 1 ” 


mid £p?\ 


J?dsT t 


.Chaves 


fwni 
Indian 

lies A 


\IBermilillo 
Hue water S K&ijfr 

San Jose 


llace.^A' vT v V' cv 7n\^T Vft ; v Vo 

;/* 5 $&da*s§K 

aJ: X^s^v m i 




z^Wtue Xas_Colonias 

' ~C_u_§t 


Go r tJ E 

Liberty 
Puerto de Puna 


I 


*- p 

Racas Ranch —o 


Sabin aj 


Xos Lunas ^Antelope Spr. ^ ^ Canadinas | 

C 1 A Sunny side ^ o , 

N JFort Sumner) 


Q Pueblo Alan co 
^ Ruins 

o*White Oaks 


JVlammo^ 0;La;Toja | 

Council Rock o y 

j ^akSjnwa g^ln'ioniolfS.nPednJ 

j S \’ O C .O R 1/ R O. 0 T» IUW Vi»»« . 

I f/\ Old | JForL Cratg /'^Coneradcro • * 

R ^mpShemm.jwj£ cscn ;e YV A <u' nt 0 £Z *^Lincoln 

Alma pContaratis/ fLava Sta « *j* 

XoneTin^ J^ o /Engle \ Indian 

Jilao'^^Los PalopxpscT lcutter£ta^ JUserve 
yFtJBtyyard JRes. | ban Presidio 

L Silver? ° JY.TJorn£^ffo 0 rne . N A 

fVx V ~ n 1 

J IrsQummi7ipS^jrf\\ ^ Seven Rivers 

R A PA Yjf Scldciiv& 

T) emin^> r^l - O^vLlTcsilla I 

Sepa^ | o \ C^AIcequite Slaagtcr’sRanch 0 

, Cambray X^- 


\j_rc >ri | 

- - r-1 




. Grahoria 


iXa Xacha . 
[\lamo Viejo I 

•_ , 

M E 


0 °Carizillo N{A El Paso 

— ■ — ■ ■■ "■ •• rnmmmm m ^ m mmmm • ^ 

Paso del-Nortci 


Sierra Rlanca 




> 


o 


MAP OP 

NEW MEXICO 

Area square miles 12*2,460 
Population 119,565 

6 


NEW MEXICO ranks eighth in silver, eleventh in gold, nine¬ 
teenth in sheep, twenty-second in cattle, thirty-sixth in miles of 
railway, fortieth in population. First settlement, by Spaniards, 
at Santa Fe, 1537. Organized as a territory, 1S50. Population in 
18S5, territorial census, 134,141. 


135 



























NAMES OF THE STATES. 

Michigan —The Indian name for a fish weir. The lake was so 
called from the fancied resemblance of the lake to a fish trap. 
Minnesota —Indian; meaning “ skj-tinted water.” Mississippi 
—Indian; meaning “great father of waters.” Missouri —Indian; 
meaning “muddy.” Nebraska —Indian; meaning “water val¬ 
ley.” Nevada —Spanish; meaning “snow-covered,” alluding to 
the mountains. New Hampshire —From Hampshire county, 
England. New Jersey —In honor of Sir George Carteret, one 
of the original grantees, who had previously been governor of 
Jersey Island. New 2~ork —In honor of the Duke of York. 
North and South Carolina —Originally called Carolina, in 
honor of Charles IX. of France. Ohio —Indian; meaning 
“beautiful river.” Oregon —From the Spanish “oregano,” wild 
marjoram, which grows abundantly on the coast. Pennsylvania 
—Latin: meaning Penn’s woody land. Rhode Island —From a 
fancied resemblance to the island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. 
Tennessee —Indian, meaning “river with the great bend.” 
Texas — Origin of this name is unknown. Vermont —French; 
meaning green mountain. Virginia —In honor of Elizabeth, 
the “Virgin Queen.” Wisconsin —Indian; meaning “ gathering 
of the waters,” or “ wild rushing channel.” 

MOTTOES OF THE STATES. 

Arkansas — Regnant populi: The peoples rule. Califor¬ 
nia — Eureka: I have found it. Colorado—Nil sine numine: 
Nothing without the Divinity. Connecticut—£>ui transtulit 
sustinet: He who has transferred, sustains. Delaware —Liberty 
and Independence. Florida —In God is our trust. Georgia — 
Wisdom, Justice, Moderation. Illinois —State Sovereignty and 
National Union. Iowa —Our liberties we prize, and our rights 
we will maintain. Kansas — Ad astra per aspera: To the stars 
through rugged ways. Kentucky —United we stand, divided we 
fall. Louisiana —Union and Confidence. Maine — Dirigo: I 
direct. Maryland — Crescite et multiplicamini : Increase and 
multiply. Massachusetts — Ense petit placidam sub libertate 
quietem: By her sword she seeks under liberty a calm repose. 
Michigan — Si quceris peninsulam amcenam circumspice: If 
thou seekest a beautiful peninsula, look around. Minnesota — 
L’Etoile du Nord: The Star of the North. Missouri — Solus 
populi suprema lex esto: Let the welfare of the people be the 
supreme law. Nebraska —Popular Sovereignty. Nevada — 
Volens et potetis: Willing and able. New Jersey —Liberty and 
Independence. New Fork — Excelsior: Higher. Ohio -Im- 
perium in imperio: An empire within an empire. Oregon — 
A lis volat propriis : She flies with her own wings. Pennsylva¬ 
nia —Virtue, Liberty, Independence. Rhode Island — Hope. 

136 



GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 

South Caroli?ia—Aniinis opibusque parati: Ready With our 
lives and property. Tennessee —Agriculture, Commerce. Ver¬ 
mont —Freedom and Unity. Virginia—Sic semper tyrannis: 
So be it ever to tyrants. West Virginia—Montani semper 
liberi: The mountaineers are always free. Wisconsin —For¬ 
ward. United States—E pluribus unum: From many, one. 
Annuit cceptis: God has favored the undertaking; Novus ordo 
seclorum: A new order of ages. The first named on one side of 
the great seal, the other two on the reverse. 


GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 

STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Alabama, Cotton State; Arkansas, Toothpick and Bear State; 
California, Eureka and Golden State; Colorado, Buffalo Plains; 
Connecticut, Land of Steady Habits, Freestone State and Nut¬ 
meg State; Dakota, Sioux State; Delaware, Uncle Sam’s Pocket 
Handkerchief and Blue Hen State; Florida, Everglade and 
Flowery State; Georgia, Empire State of the South; Idaho, Gem 
of the Mountains; Illinois, Prairie and Sucker State; Indiana, 
Iloosier State; Iowa, Hawkeye State; Kansas, Jay hawker State; 
Kentucky, Corn-cracker State; Louisiana, Creole State; Maine, 
Timber and Pine Tree State; Maryland, Monumental State; 
Massachusetts, Old Bay State; Michigan, Wolverine and Penin¬ 
sular State; Minnesota, Gopher and North Star State; Mississippi, 
Eagle State; Missouri, Puke State; Nebraska, Antelope State; 
Nevada, Sage State; New Hampshire, Old Granite State; New 
Jersey, Blue State and New Spain; New Mexico, Vermin State; 
New York, Empire State; North Carolina, Rip Van Winkle, 
Old North and Turpentine State; Ohio, Buckeye State; Oregon, 
Pacific State; Pennsylvania, Keystone, Iron and Oil State; 
Rhode Island, Plantation State and Little Rhody; South Caro¬ 
lina, Palmetto State; Tennessee, Lion’s Den State; Texas, Lone 
Star State; Utah, Mormon State; Vermont, Green Mountain 
State; Virginia, Old Dominion; Wisconsin, Badger and Copper 
State. 

NATIVES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 

Alabama, lizards; Arkansas, toothpicks; California, gold-hun¬ 
ters; Colorado, rovers; Connecticut, wooden nutmegs; Dakota, 
squatters; Delaware, muskrats; Florida, fly-up-the-creeks; 
Georgia, buzzards; Idaho, fortune seekers; Illinois, suckers; 
Indiana, hoosiers; Iowa, hawkeyes; Kansas, jayhawkers; Ken¬ 
tucky, corn-crackers; Louisiana, creoles; Maine, foxes; Mary- 
landj clam-humpers; Massachusetts, Yankees; Michigan, wol¬ 
verines; Minnesota, gophers; Mississippi, tadpoles; Missouri, 
pukes; Nebraska, bugeaters; Nevada, sage-hens; New Hampshire, 
granite boys; New Jersey, blues, or clam-catchers; New Mexico, 

137 




NEW YORK ranks first in manufactures, population, printing 
and publishing, hops, hay, potatoes, buckwheat and milch cows; 
second in salt, silk goods, malt and distilled liquors, miles of rail¬ 
way and barley; third in agricultural implements, iron ore, iron 
and steel, oats and rye, fourth in wool. First settlement, by the 
Dutch, at New Amsterdam (now New York City), 1614 . One of 
the original States. 


•138 
































NORTH CAROLINA ranks first in tar and turpentine, second in 
copper, third in peanuts and tobacco, fourth in rice, ninth in cot¬ 
ton, fifteenth in population. First settlers, English, Cowan 
River, 1650 . SOUTH CAROLINA ranks first in rice and phos¬ 
phates, fifth in cotton, twentieth in population. First settlers, 
English, Ashley River, 1670 . North and South Carolina are both 
original States. 


.189 




















GEOGRAPHICAL NICKNAMES. 


Spanish Indians; New York, Knickerbockers; North Carolina, 
tarheels; Ohio, buckeyes; Oregon, hard cases; Pennsylvania, 
pennamites, or leather-heads; Rhode Island, gunflints; South 
Carolina, weazles; Tennessee, whelps; Texas, beef-heads; Utah, 
polygamists; Vermont, green-mountain boys; Virginia, beagles; 
Wisconsin, badgers. 

NICKNAMES OF CITIES. 

Atlanta, Gate City of the South; Baltimore, Monumental 
City; Bangor, Lumber City; Boston, Modern Athens, Literary 
Emporium, City of Notions, and Hub of the Universe; Brook¬ 
lyn, City of Churches; Buffalo, Queen of the Lakes; Burling¬ 
ton (Iowa), Orchard City; Charleston, Palmetto City; Chicago, 
Prairie, or Garden City; Cincinnati, Queen of the West and 
Porkopolis; Cleveland, Forest City; Denver, City of the Plains; 
Detroit, City of the Straits; Hartford, Insurance City; Indian¬ 
apolis, Railroad City; Keokuk, Gate City; Lafayette, Star City; 
Leavenworth, Cottonwood City; Louisville, Falls City; Lowell, 
Spindle City; McGregor, Pocket City; Madison, Lake City; 
Milwaukee, Cream City; Nashville, Rock City; New Haven, 
Elm City; New Orleans, Crescent City; New York, Empire 
City, Commercial Emporium, Gotham, and Metropolis of 
America; Philadelphia, City of Brotherly Love, City of Penn, 
Quaker City, and Centennial City; Pittsburgh, Iron City and 
Smoky City; Portland (Me.), Hill City; Providence, Roger 
Williams’s. City, and Perry Davis’s Pain Killer; Raleigh, Oak 
City; Richmond (Va.), Cockade City; Richmond (Ind.), 
Quaker City of the West; Rochester, Aqueduct City; Salt 
Lake City, Mormon City; San Francisco, Golden Gate; Sa¬ 
vannah, Forest City of the South; Sheboyan, Evergreen City; 
St. Louis, Mound City; St. Paul, North Star City; Vicksburg, 
Key City; Washington, City of Magnificent Distances, and 
Federal City. 


The English Sparrow. 

The first English sparrow was brought to the United States 
in 1850 , but it was not until 1870 that the species can be said to 
have firmly established itself. Since then it has taken posses¬ 
sion of the country. Its fecundity is amazing. In the latitude 
of New York and* southward it hatches, as a rule, five or six 
broods in a season, with from four to six young in a brood. As¬ 
suming the average annual product of a pair to be twenty-four 
young, of which half are females and half males, and assuming 
further, lor the sake of computation, that all live, together with 
their offspring, it will be seen that in ten years the progeny of a 
single pair would be 275 , 716 , 983 , 698 . 

140 



U. S. STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL. 


T HE NEXT census of the United States, when completed, 
will probably show a population of nearly 60 , 000 , 000 . 
The census of 1880 counted 50 , 155 , 783 * of whom 17 ,- 
392,099 were earners. 

The combined wealth of the country in 1880 amounted to 
over $ 50 , 000 , 000,000 — about $880 per head, or $ 2,600 per worker. 
Half of this was in lands and houses. This half was made up of 
farms, $ 10 , 197 , 000,000 ; residence and business real-estate, $ 9 , 881 ,- 
000,000 ; public buildings, churches, etc., not taxed, $ 2 , 000 , 000 ,- 
000 . One-eighth was railroads ( $ 5 , 536 , 000 , 000 ); another eighth, 
household furniture and supplies ($ 5 , 000 , 000 , 000 ); the other 
quarter, live stock and farm tools ($ 2 , 406 , 000 , 000 ); mines and 
quarries ($ 781 , 000 , 000 ); telegraphs, ships and canals ($ 419 , 000 ,- 
000 ); specie ($ 612 , 000 , 000 ); miscellaneous ($ 650 , 000 , 000 ); and 
the stock of products and imports ($ 6 , 160 , 000 , 000 ). 

The annual product or earnings of the nation are given by 
the census of 1880 as $ 8 , 500 , 000 , 000 . One-tenth of this is used on 
farms. The product is very unevenly divided. An even divi¬ 
sion would give about $450 per year to each earner, or less than 
45 cents per day for each person. But it has been reckoned that 
in 1880 fifty persons had an average income of $ 1 , 000,000 each 
per year ; 2 , 000 , $ 100 , 000 ; 100 , 000 , $ 10 , 000 ; a million, $ 1 , 000 ; 
14 , 000,000 under $400 per year. 

The chief wastes are as follows : 

1 . Drink. The “liquor bill” of this country, at the price paid 
dram-shops, is estimated at from $ 474 , 000,000 up, of which a large 
part is worse than waste. 

2 . Fire. The loss by fire each year now exceeds $ 100 , 000 , 000 , 
of which the $ 50 , 000,000 paid back by insurance companies is 
none the less loss. The expenses of insurance companies are 
$ 35 , 000,000 in addition, and for fire departments, $ 25 , 000,000 

more. . . 

3 . Crime and pauperism. The census reported 59,255 crimi¬ 
nals in jail, and 67,067 paupers in poor-houses. These are by no 
means all. Their support costs over $ 12 , 500,000 per year, but 
the full loss by crime runs probably toward fifty millions. 

4 . Waste of food. We consume now about $ 500 , 000,000 worth 
of food, of which probably 10 per cent is wasted by extrava¬ 
gance, bad cooking, etc., or $ 50 , 000 , 000 . 

5 . Strikes and lack of employment. There were in one year 
( 1880 ) 762 strikes recorded, of which 226 are known to have re¬ 
sulted in a loss of $ 3 , 700,000 unearned wages. Still greater is 
the loss by lack of employment for men willing to work. 

141 




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OHIO ranks first in agricultural implements and wool, second in 
petroleum, iron and steel, third in population, wheat, sheep, coal, 
malt and distilled liquors; fourth in printing and publishing, salt 
and miles of railway; fifth in milch cows, hogs, horses, hay, tobac¬ 
co, iron ore and manufactures. First settled, by English, at Mari¬ 
etta, 178S. Admitted into the Union, 1S03. 


142 












































OREGON ranks seventh among' the States and Territories in 
fisheries, fifteenth in wheat, thirty-sixth in population. Firs,t 
settlement, by Americans, in 1811 . Organized as a territory in 
184 S, and admitted into the Union in 1859 . 





















FACTS ABOUT OUR COUNTRY. 

The following gives the area of our country, and when and how 
the territory was acquired : 

Square Miles. 


Territory ceded by England in 1783. 815,615 

Louisiana acquired from France in 1803. 930,928 

Florida acquired from Spain in 1821. 59,268 

Texas admitted into the Union in 1845 . 237,504 

Oregon, by treaty in 1846. 280,425 

California taken from Mexico in 1845.. 649,762 

Arizona, from Mexico by treaty in 1854. 27,500 

Alaska, from Russia by treaty in 1867. 577,390 


Total square miles. 3,578,392 


INCREASE OF POPULATION IN UNITED STATES. 

Total 

Natural. Immigration, per Cent. 


1831-40. 28.02 4.65 32.67 

1841-50. 26.19 9.68* 35.87 

1851-60. 24.20 11.38 35.58 

1861-70. 15.38 7.25 22.63 

1871-80. 22.78 7.29 30.07 


The increase of population since 1730 has averaged 32 per cent, 
every 10 years. At this rate there will be eighty-eight millions 
in 1900 . 

The increase of population in Europe since the fourteenth cen¬ 
tury is as follows, according to Mulhall (thousands omitted): 



1380. 

1480. 

1580. 

1680. 

1780. 

1880. 

British Isles ... 

2,360 

3,700 

4,600 

5,532 

9,561 

35,004 

France. 

11,240 

12,600 

14,300 

18,800 

25,100 

37,400 

Germany. 

600 

800 

1,000 

1,400 

5,460 

45,260 

Russia. 

1,200 

2,100 

4 300 

12,600 

26,800 

84,440 

Austria. 

2,300 

9,500 

16,500 

14,000 

20,200 

37,830 

Italy. 

8,400 

9,200 

10,400 

11,500 

12,800 

28,910 

Spain. 

7,500 

8,800 

8,150 

9,200 

9,960 

16,290 

Total. 

33,600 

46,700 

59,250 

73,032 

109,881 

285,134 


GOVERNMENT SALARIES. 

The salary of the President of the United States is $ 50,000 a 
year, the Vice President, $ 8 , 000 ; Cabinet officers, $ 8 , 000 . Sena¬ 
tors, $ 5,000 and mileage; Congressmen, $ 5,000 and mileage. 
Chief Justice Supreme Court, $ 10,500 ; associate Justices, $ 10 ,- 
000 . The diplomats get good pay : Ministers to Germany, 

144 




































U. S. STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL. 

Great Britain, France and Russia, $17,500 ; Ministers to Brazil, 
China,. Austria-Hungary, Italy, Mexico, Japan and Spain, $12,- 
000; Ministers to Chili, Peru and Central America, $10,000; Minis¬ 
ters to Argentine Confederation, Hawaiian Islands, Belgium, 
Hayti, Colombia, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey and Venezuela, 
$7,500 ; Ministers to Switzerland, Denmark, Paraguay, Bolivia 
and Portugal, $5,000 ; Ministers to Liberia, $4,000. The heads 
of the Government departments receive : Superintendent of 
Bureau of Engraving and Printing, $4,500 ; Public Printer, $4,- 
500 ; Superintendent of Census, $5,000 ; Superintendent of Naval 
Observatory, $5,000 ; Superintendent of the Signal Service, $4,- 
000 ; Director of Geological Surveys, $6,000 ; Director of the 
Mint, $4,500 ; Commissioner of General Land Office, $4,000 ; 
Commissioner of Pensions, $3,600 ; Commissioner of Agricul¬ 
ture, $3,000 ; Commissioner of Indian Affairs, $3,000 ; Commis¬ 
sioner of Education, $3,000 ; Commander of Marine Corps, $3,- 
500 ; Superintendent of Coast and Geodetic Survey, $6,000. 

The pay of army officers is fixed as follows : General, $13,- 
500; Lieut.-General, $11,000; Major-General, $7,500; Brigadier- 
General, $5,500; Colonel, $3,500, Lieutenant-Colonel, $3,000 ; 
Major, $2,500 ; Captain, mounted, $2,000 ; Captain, not mounted, 
$1,800 ; Regimental Adjutant, $1,800; Regimental Quartermas¬ 
ter, $1,800 ; 1st Lieutenant, mounted, $1,600; 1st Lieutenant, not 
mounted, $1,500 ; 2d Lieutenant, mounted, $1,500 ; 2d Lieutenant, 
not mounted, $1,400 ; Chaplain, $1,500. The navy salaries are : 
Admiral, $13,000 ; Vice-Admiral, $9,000 ; Rear-Admiral, $6,000 ; 
Commodore, $5,000 ; Captain, $4,500 ; Commander, $3,500 ; 
Lieut-Commander, $2,800; Lieutenant, $2,400 ; Master, $1,800 ; 
Ensign, $1,200 ; Midshipman, $1,000 ; Cadet Midshipman, $500; 
Mate, $900 ; Medical and Pay Director and Medical and Pay 
Inspector and Chief Engineer, $4,400 ; Fleet Surgeon, Fleet Pay¬ 
master and Fleet Engineer, $4,400 ; Surgeon and Paymaster, $2,- 
800 ; Chaplain, $2,500. 

STATE AND TERRITORIAL CAPITALS. 

Alabama, Montgomery ; Arizona, Prescott; Arkansas, Little 
Rock ; California, Sacramento ; Colorado, Denver; Connecti¬ 
cut, Hartford ; North Dakota, Bismarck; South Dakota, Yank¬ 
ton ; Delaware, Dover ; Florida, Tallahassee; Georgia, Atlanta ; 
Idaho, Boise City ; Illinois, Springfield ; Indiana, Indianapolis ; 
Indian Territory, Tahlequah ; Iowa, Des Moines ; Kansas, 
Topeka ; Kentucky, Frankfort; Louisiana, Baton Rouge ; Maine, 
Augusta ; Maryland, Annapolis ; Massachusetts, Boston ; Michi¬ 
gan, Lansing; Minnesota, St. Paul; Mississippi, Jackson ; 
Missouri, Jefferson City ; Montana, Helena; Nebraska, Lin¬ 
coln ; Nevada, Carson City; New Hampshire, Concord; 

145 




PENNSYLVANIA ranks first in rye, iron and steel, petroleum, 
coal; second in population, manufactures, buckwheat, potatoes, 
printing and publishing; third in milch cows, hay and miles of rail¬ 
way; fourth in oats and tobacco; fifth in silk goods, wool, malt and 
distilled liquors; sixth in salt, copper and agricultural implements; 
eighth in horses and sheep. First settlement, English, Philadel¬ 
phia, 1682 . One of the thirteen original States. 


146 























Jl 



RHODE ISLAND ranks second among the States of the Union 
in cotton, flax and linen goods, thirty-third in population. The 
first settlement was by the English at Providence in 1636. .One of 
the thirteen original States. 


147 




























U. S. STATISTICS IN A NUTSHELL . 

New Jersey, Trenton ; New Mexico Territory, Santa Fe ; New 
York, Albany; North Carolina, Raleigh; Ohio, Columbus; 
Oregon, Salem ; Pennsylvania, Harrisburg; RhodeTsland, New¬ 
port and Providence; South Carolina, Columbia ; Tennessee, 
Nashville; Texas, Austin; Utah Territory, Salt Lake City; 
Vermont, Montpelier ; Virgina, Richmond ; Washington, Olym¬ 
pia ; West Virginia, Wheeling ; Wisconsin, Madison ; Wyom¬ 
ing Territory, Cheyenne. 

Portraits on Bank Notes and Postage Stamps. 

On United States notes—$i, Washington; $2, Jefferson; $5, 
Jackson; $10, Webster; $20, Hamilton; $50, Franklin; $100, 
Lincoln; $500, General Mansfield; $1,000, DeWitt Clinton; 
$5,000, Madison; $10,000, Jackson. On silver certificates—$10, 
Robert Morris; $20, Commodore Decatur; $50, Edward Everett; 
$100, James Monroe; $500, Charles Sumner, and $1,000, W. L. 
Marcy. On gold notes—$20, Garfield; $50, Silas Wright; $100, 
Thomas H. Benton; $500, A. Lincoln; $1,000, Alexander Hamil¬ 
ton; $5,000, James Madison; $10,000, Andrew Jackson. 

Those which appear on postage stamps are: On 10-cent 
stamp, the head of Jefferson, from life-size statue by Powers; 
6-cent, Lincoln, from bust by Volk; 5-cent, Garfield; 4-cent, 
Jackson; 2-cent, Washington, after Houdin’s bust; i-cent, 
Franklin, from profile bust by Rubicht. Postal card, Jefferson. 

Symbolic Meaning of Colors. —White was the emblem 
of light, religious purity, innocence, faith, joy and life. In the 
judge, it indicates integrity; in the sick, humility; in the woman, 
chastity. 

Red, the ruby, signifies fire, divine love, heat of the creative 
power, and royalty. White and red roses express love and wis¬ 
dom. The red color of the blood has its origin in the action of 
the heart, which corresponds to, or symbolizes, love. In a bad 
sense red corresponds to the infernal love of evil, hatred, etc. 

Blue, or the sapphire, expresses heaven, the firmament, truth 
from a celestial origin, constancy and fidelity. 

Yellow, or gold, is the symbol of the sun, of the goodness of 
God, of marriage and faithfulness. In a bad sense yellow signi¬ 
fies inconstancy, jealousy and deceit. 

Green, the emerald, is the color of the spring of hope, particu¬ 
larly of the hope of immortality and of victory, as the color of 
the laurel and palm. 

Violet, the amethyst, signifies love and truth, or passion and 
suffering. Purple and scarlet signify things good and true from 
a celestial origin. 

Black corresponds .to despair, darkness, earthliness, mourning, 
negation, wickedness and death. 

148 




U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF, 


T HAT enthusiastic little rebel, Rhode Island, was the first 
of the colonies to declare itself “ free from all dependence 
on the crown of Great Britain.” This she did on May 
4, 1776- The Assembly of Virginia in the same month in¬ 
structed her delegates to the Continental Congress to present to 
that body a proposition “ affirming the independence of the colo¬ 
nies from Great Britain.” In compliance with these instructions 
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, on June 7 , 1776 , introduced his 
famous resolutions: “That these united colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all political 
connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved. That it is expedient forthwith to 
take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances. 
That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the 
respective colonies for their consideration and approbation.” 
John Adams seconded these resolutions, and an animated discus¬ 
sion ensued. On June 8, a committee consisting of Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to draw up a declaration 
of independence embodying the sense of Lee’s resolutions. On 
July 2, Lee’s resolutions were passed by the vote of twelve of the 
thirteen colonies, the New York delegates refraining from voting 
for want of instructions from their province. On July 3, the 
formal declaration, almost precisely as written by.Thomas Jef¬ 
ferson, -was presented by the committee above named, and was 
debated with great spirit, John Adams being the chief speaker 
on the part of the committee. The discussion was resumed on 
the morning of the 4th, and at 2 o’clock in the afternoon, after 
one or two slight modifications, it was adopted. The announce¬ 
ment was hailed with the liveliest enthusiasm. “Ring! ring!” 
shouted the lad stationed below to give the signal to the old bell¬ 
man in the State House tower; and he did ring until the whole 
city shouted for joy. The King’s arms were wrenched from the 
Court House and burned in the streets; bonfires were lighted, 
the city illuminated, and the exultation was prolonged far into 
the night. In New York City the populace hurled the leaden 
statute of George III. from its pedestal and molded it into bul¬ 
lets, and in all the great cities similar demonstrations of enthu¬ 
siasm were exhibited. 

The Declaration of Independence was signed August 2, 
1776 , when President John Hancock said, “ There must be no 
pulling different ways, we must all hang together,” to which 
Franklin replied, “Yes, we must all hang together, or we shall 
all hang separately.” 


149 




TEXAS ranks first in cattle and cotton, second in sugar, sheep, 
mules and horses, sixth in miles of railway, seventh in milch cows, 
eighth in hogs and rice, eleventh in population. First settle¬ 
ment, by Spaniards, at San Antonio, in 1692. Admitted into the 
Union in 1845. 


150 






















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Montezuma 

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t. George 


Mt. Carmel 


Cave dwellings 


MAP OF 

U T AH 

Population. - - 143,963 
Area sq.mi lea— 8 4 2,19Q 


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UTAH ranks third among the States and Territories in silver, 
tenth in gold, fifteenth in coal, thirty-fourth in miles of railway, 
thirty-eighth in population. First settlement, by Americans, 
at Salt Lake City, 1S47. Organized as a Territory in 1850. 


151 
































V. S. POLITICAL DISTORT IN BRIEF. 


State constitutions were adopted in the same year as follows: 
By New Jersey (July 2), Virginia (July 5), Pennsylvania (July 
it;), Maryland (Aug. 14), Delaware (Sept. 20), North Carolina 
(Dec. 18). 

1778— Independence of United States acknowledged by 
France by a treaty of alliance and commerce. 

1779— Naval victory of John Paul Jones. 

1781— A French fleet in aid of the United States drives the 
British from Chesapeake Bay. Surrender of Cornwallis. 

1782— Independence recognized by Holland. 

1783— Independence acknowledged by Sweden, Denmark, 
Spain and Russia, successively. Definite treaty of peace with 
Great Britain, Sept. 3. 

1789—Formation and adoption of the Constitution. 

The following compact history of political parties in the 
United States is largely taken from R. R. Bowker’s excellent 
“ Primer for Political Information.” 

During the War of Independence those who favored English 
rule were called Tories , and those who favored independence 
were called Whigs , after the English party names. While the 
Constitution was forming those who desired a strong federal 
government were called Federalists, and those who desired to 
reserve greater power to the States were known as Anti-Feder¬ 
alists. After the adoption of the Constitution the same conflict 
continued in interpreting its provisions, the loose or broad con¬ 
structionists construing all doubtful points in favor of the power 
of the general government, the strict or close constructionists in 
favor of State rights or of limiting governmental power in gen¬ 
eral. This broad distinction has since underlain most party 
divisions in this country. 

From 1789 to about 1816, parties were divided chiefly on 
foreign relations, the Federalists favoring English institutions 
and English alliance, and the Anti-Federalists, who began to be 
called Democratic-Republicans, sympathizing with the new 
French Republic. George Washington was elected President in 
1789 by a unanimous electoral vote, with John Adams as Vice- 
President, and formed his cabinet from both parties, Alexander 
Hamilton leading the Federalists and Thomas Jefferson the 
“Republicans ,” as they were then mostly called. 

During Washington’s second term party spirit ran high, so 
that in his farewell he solemnly warned his countrymen against 
“the baneful effects of the spirit of party.” The Federalists, 
despite the unpopularity of the treaty with England, made by 
Chief Justice Jay and signed by Washington in 1795, elected 
John Adams second President (1797-1801) with Thomas Jeffer¬ 
son as Vice-President, the Constitution (until the Amendment, 

152 


U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 


1804) providing that the Presidential candidate having next to 
the highest number of votes should become Vice-President. 
But the strong alien and sedition laws of 1798, against which 
the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions were revolts, hurt the 
Federalists, who became divided into two factions, with Ham¬ 
ilton and Adams at their heads. Members of Congress nomi¬ 
nated Adams and Pinkney as the Federalist, and Jefferson and 
Aaron Burr as the opposing candidates. The latter were 
victorious, but received even votes, so that the election was 
thrown into the House, which chose Jefferson third President 
(1801-1809) and Burr Vice-President. 

On the defeat of the Federalists the “ Republicans ” (Demo¬ 
crats) demanded the offices, but Jefferson declined to remove 
except for violent partisanship, though he lamented that “ few 
die and none resign.” Waiving his own political principles 
of strict construction, Jefferson assented (1803) to the purchase 
of the Louisiana territory from France for $15,000,000, and 
(1806) to the construction of a national road from Baltimore to 
Ohio. A treaty with France was signed in 1803. Jefferson 
was re-elected, with George Clinton as Vice-President. Burr’s 
mysterious expedition down the Mississippi and his trial for 
treason occurred in Jefferson’s second term. 

The “Republicans” (Democrats) elected Madison fourth 
President (1809-17) and Clinton Vice-President, the Feder¬ 
alists losing all their hold except in New England. The 
continued hostilities of England led the “ Republicans ” to 
change policy and become a war party, under the leadership 
of Crawford, Calhoun, and Clay, and war with England was 
declared in 1812. Madison was re elected, with Elbridge 
Gerry as Vice-President, but the Federalist members of Con¬ 
gress issued an address protesting against the war, and the 
governors of Massachusetts and Connecticut refused to allow 
their militia to leave the State, except in case of invasion. 
Invasion, however, followed, and Washington was burned 
and the President nearly captured in 1814. At sea, however, 
the Amfirican navy won brilliant victories. In New England 
the “Peace Party” was strong, and the famous “Hartford 
Convention ” of 1814 was called as a protest. It met in secret, 
which gave rise to the mistaken impression that treason and 
secession were contemplated. Peace was signed in 1814, but 
the news did not reach this country in time to prevent the 
battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1815, in which Gen. Jackson 
won a splendid victory. With the close of the war the Feder¬ 
alist party practically disappeared. 

From 1816 to 1844, the second party period, parties divided 
chiefly on questions of finance and industry and the tariff. 

153 



VIRGINIA ranks first in peanuts, second in tobacco, eighth in 
salt and iron ore, fourteenth in population. First settlers, Eng¬ 
lish, at Jamestown, 1607. One of the original States. WEST 
VIRGINIA ranks fifth in salt and coal, eighth in buckwheat, iron 
and steel, twenty-ninth in population. First settlers, English, 
at Wheeling, 1774. Admitted into the Union in 1863. 


154 


















WASHINGTON, in 1S80, ranked eighth among the States and 
Territories in gold, forty-sixth in miles of railway, forty-first 
in population. First settlement, by Americans, at Astoria, in 1S11- 
Organized as a territory in 1S53, and admitted into the Union in 
1889. 


155 




















XJ. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 

The fifth President, James Monroe (1817-25), with Daniel D. 
Tompkins as Vice-President, was elected as a “ Republican ” 
(Democrat), but his re-election was unopposed, save by one 
elector, who declared that no one after Washington ought to 
have a unanimous electoral vote, and his second administration 
was known as “ the era of good feeling.” Party lines were not 
fairly formed again until 1828. 

The slavery question smouldered till near the close of this 
period, being put aside by compromise or by surrender to the 
slave interest. In 1820 it w r as raised by the application of 
Missouri for admission as a State. It had been agreed that 
north of the line drawn by the surveyors, Mason and Dixon, 
between Maryland and Pennsylvania, and of the Ohio River, 
the States were to be free, but the new State was beyond 
the Mississippi. The House was against, the Senate for, slavery ; 
the famous Missouri compromise of Henry Clay (1820) ad¬ 
mitted Maine as a free and Missouri as a slave State, and 
prohibited slavery north of 36° 30'. 

The warm welcome of President Monroe in a tour through 
the country emphasized the disappearance of the Federalists. 
The Calhoun protective tariff had been passed in 1816, and 
the President’s first message recommended a protective policy ; 
as a compromise, a reduction provided for in the previous bill 
was repealed. In 1819 Florida was purchased and Texas given 
up, becoming a part of Mexico two years later. The war of 
Spain against her revolted colonies led to the declaration, in 
the message of 1823, of the Monroe doctrine, that the United 
States would neither interfere in any European war, nor tol¬ 
erate the attempt of any European power to acquire a con¬ 
trolling influence in this hemisphere. The Clay protective 
tariff and a bill for a national canal system were passed by the 
broad constructionists, under Clay’s leadership, in 1824. 

At the next election party lines were indefinite, and the 
electoral vote was scattered among Jackson, Adams, Crawford 
and Clay. Calhoun was elected Vice-President, and the House' 
chose John Quincy Adams, by the help of the friends of Clay, 
sixth President (1825-29). Clay became Secretary of State, 
and out of the Clay-Adams forces the National-Republican, 
afterwards the Whig, party was gradually developed. Adams 
and Clay were broad constructionists, favoring internal im¬ 
provements and a protective policy, and the tariff of 1828, 
called by its enemies “the tariff of abominations,” because they 
had tried to make it as objectionable as possible, was passed by 
Congress. The majority, however, had been alienated from 
the administration, and as “Jackson men” formed a strong 
opposition, favoring strict construction, and continuing the 

156 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN RRIRP. 


Democratic-Republican party under the name it has since 
borne, of “ Democrats,” 

This resulted in the election, against Adams, of Andrew 
Jackson, as seventh President (1829-37), with Calhoun as Vice- 
President. Nominations by Congressional caucuses had now 
ceased, and Jackson’s nomination came from the Legislature of 
his State. Clay remained the leader of the National-Repub- 
lican opposition, but there was little distinctive party principle. 
Internal improvements and a more or less protective tariff 
were generally advocated. The first notable event of Jackson’s 
administration was his removal from office, a pcrwer unused by 
former Presidents, of five hundred office-holders, on the theory 
of Marcy, his Secretary of State, that “to the victors belong 
the spoils.” Thus began the “ rotation in office” which con¬ 
tinued until the “civil-service reform” movement after the civil 
war, and which is still practically in operation today. 

The chief difficulty of Jackson’s administration was Nullifi¬ 
cation. The South considered the tariff of 1828 “legalized 
robbery,” and began to look to Calhoun for relief. Georgia 
and South Carolina had protested through their Legislatures ; 
and their doctrine, that any State could declare an act of Con¬ 
gress unconstitutional, and therefore null and void, was voiced 
by Hayne (to whom Webster replied) in the “great debate” of 
1830, in the Senate, which started from a question as to public- 
land sales. Soon after, at a Democratic dinner celebrating 
Jefferson’s birthday, Jackson rebuked this doctrine with the 
toast, “Our Federal Union; it must be preserved,” to which 
Calhoun retorted with, “Liberty, dearer than the Union.” 
In 1831, Calhoun attacked the President in a pamphlet, and 
the breaking up of the Cabinet followed, including the resigna¬ 
tion of Calhoun’s opponent, Van Buren, as Secretary of 
State. The tariff of 1832, reducing most duties, failed to 
pacify the South. In the presidential election, South Carolina 
put forward candidates of her own, Floyd of Virginia and 
Henry Lee of Massachusetts; and November 19, 1832, a State 
convention passed the Ordinance of Nullification, and the State 
was made ready for war. The President issued his proclama¬ 
tion, and occupied Charleston harbor with a naval force, and a 
bill for enforcing the tariff was passed. The Clay compromise 
tariff of 1833 put an end to the excitement, and postponed the 
question of secession till i860. 

In 1816 the “Republicans” (Democrats) had chartered for 
twenty years a national bank. Jackson thought its power 
anti-democratic, but Congress refused to order the removal of 
the United States deposits from it. Secretary Duane also 
refused to remove the deposits or to resign, whereupon the 

157 



WISCONSIN ranks second in hops, third in barley and potatoes, 
fourth in rye and buckwheat, fifth in oats and agricultural imple¬ 
ments, seventh in iron, steel and wool, eighth in hay and milch 
cows, ninth in copper, sixteenth in population. First settle¬ 
ment, French, at Green Bay, in 1660. Admitted into the Union in 
1S4S. 


158 





































WYOMING, in 1880, ranked twelfth among the States and Terri¬ 
tories in cattle, fourteenth in gold, sixteenth in coal, thirty-fourth 
in miles of railway, forty-sixth in population. First settlement, 
by Americans, in 1867. Organized as a territory in 1868. 


159 

















U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 


President removed him, and appointed Taney Secretary, who 
at once ordered cessation of deposits. This gave rise to what 
is called the bank controversy. The Senate, having a majority 
of National Republicans and States’-Rights Democrats, 
passed a resolution of censure upon the President, against 
which the President protested as an indirect and illegal im¬ 
peachment. The House appointed a committee to investigate 
the bank, and voted against re-charter or restoring the deposits. 
The bank obtained a new charter from Pennsylvania, but no 
longer had the United States deposits. The President’s nomi¬ 
nations of Government directors of the bank and for other 
officers were persistently rejected by the Senate. 

In 1832, presidential nominations were made by national 
conventions. Jackson, with Martin Van Buren, was nominated 
by the Democrats, Henry Clay by the National Republicans, 
and Wm. Wirt by the Anti-Masonic party,.which had sprung 
up from the alleged murder of Wm. Morgan by the Free¬ 
masons in 1826, and opposed Clay, who was a Mason, as well 
as Jackson. It died out in a few years. The “ Loco-Foco ” 
Democrats in 1835 opposed paper-money and broad construc¬ 
tion. In 1833, the National Anti-Slavery Society was formed, 
whence the abolition party took its rise. Mob violence and 
the murder of Lovejoy followed. The abolitionists petitioned 
Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia, but 
the House had resolved not to notice petitions as to slavery. 
The President recommended Congress to prohibit sending 
abolitionist documents through the mails, but the Senate rejected 
the bill. 

Martin Van Buren was elected the eighth President (1837-41) 
over Harrison, the candidate of the Whigs, as the National 
Republicans were now called, with R. M. Johnson as Vice- 
President. He retained Jackson’s Cabinet and announced that 
he “would follow in the footsteps of his illustrious predecessor.” 
A “specie circular,” issued -by Jackson in 1836, ordering 
United States agents to receive only gold and silver for 
public lands, led to the collapse of many banks, and the sudden 
calling in of loans led to the great panic of 1837. The 
administration proposed the sub-treasury or independent 
treasury plan to “divorce bank and State,” and at last suc¬ 
ceeded in this as well as in its strict constructionist policy 
against internal improvements. 

The Democratic Convention of 1840 renominated Van 
Buren on a platform denying the right of Congress to direct 
internal improvements, to protect manufactures, to charter a 
bank, or to interfere with slavery. The Whigs simply attacked 
the administration’s financial policy, but with the cry “ Tip- 

100 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 

pecanoe and Tyler tooelected Gen. W. H. Harrison ninth 
President (1841), on whose death within one month Vice-Presi¬ 
dent Tyler became tenth President (1841-5). The Abolitionists 
had nominated Jas. G. Birney, and polled 7,059 votes. 

Tyler proposed to carry out Harrison’s declarations against 
excessive use of vetoes, which Jackson and Van Buren had 
used frequently, political use of public officials, and experi¬ 
menting upon the currency. But he vetoed bills to incorporate 
a fiscal bank of the United States, including one drawn to 
meet his own suggestions. The Cabinet, Webster excepted, 
resigned, and the Whig Congressmen, “a corporal’s guard” 
excepted, issued addresses to the people declaring “all political 
connection between them and John Tjder at an end.” Gid- 
dings, of Ohio, was censured by the House in 1842 for pre¬ 
senting resolutions restricting slavery ; he resigned, and was 
promptly re-elected. After several vetoes of tariff - bills the 
Whig protective tariff of 1842 was passed and approved, an 
accompanying bill for the distribution of surplus revenue 
among the States being pocketed by the President. 

The annexation of Texas now became the political issue, the 
South requiring new slave territory to uphold its power, and 
the Democratic convention demanding “ the reannexation of 
Texas,” and the “reoccupation of Oregon.” Oregon was 
disputed ground, the United States claiming 54 0 40' north 
latitude as the boundary, and England all territory north of 
the Columbia River; and “the whole of Oregon or none, 
with or without war with England,” was a popular cry. The 
Whigs nominated Clay, and declared for a protective tariff, 
a national currency, and the distribution of surplus revenue ; 
the Liberty party urged the free States to stop the return of 
fugitive slaves, and again nominate Birney. A “Native Amer¬ 
ican ” party opposed foreign labor, easy naturalization, and 
Catholicism. The election was so close that the result in 
fourteen States was in doubt for two days, but Clay was de¬ 
feated by the loss of the 62,300 votes of the Liberty party, 
and the Democratic nominees were elected. James K. Polk 
became eleventh President (1845-49) with George M. Dallas 
as Vice-President. 

Slavery had now become the dominating issue, and from 1844 
to 1872 the slavery question, the war of emancipation, and 
the “ reconstruction ” of the South, divided parties. 

The war with Mexico (1845-48) was precipitated, after the 
annexation and admission of Texas, during negotiations as to 
disputed territory, by the invasion of Mexico by Gen. Taylor. 
The unpopularity of the war in New England is shown in 
Lowell’s “ Biglow Papers.” The peace treaty, 1848, ceded 

161 



The Republic of Mexico comprises 27 States, a federal district 
and the territory of Lower California. The principal industries 
are agriculture, mining and stock raising. Climate mild and 
healthful in the elevated interior, but hot and pestilential along the 
coast. The Mexicans are a very mixed race, about one-tenth being 
Creoles, descendants of Spanish colonists. 


162 



















Central America and West Indies.—Central America consists 
of live independent republics and the British colony Balize. 
Principal products, coffee, sugar and dyewoods. In the elevated 
interior, gold, silver and coal abound. Sugar, tobacco and cigars, 
coffee and fruits are the principal products of Cuba. Two inde¬ 
pendent negro republics, Hayti and San Domingo, constitute the 
island of Hayti. 


103 


















U. S. POLITICAL HIST OR Y IN BRIEF . 

much territory to the United States. A treaty with England, 
1846, had accepted 49 0 north as the boundary line of Oregon, 
despite the cry of “fifty-four-forty or fight.” The House passed 
the “ Wilmot proviso,” providing as to newly acquired terri¬ 
tory that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever 
exist in any part . . . except for crime ;” the Senate passed 

a “rider” to an appropriation bill in behalf of slavery; but, 
after much maneuvering, Oregon was organized without 
slavery. The Walker low-duty tariff bill of 1846, a Demo¬ 
cratic measure, passed Congress by a strict party vote. The 
Whig majority in the next House declared that the nation 
should undertake internal improvements, and passed a river 
and harbor bill, but the President vetoed it. 

The Democratic Convention nominated Cass, and voted 
down a non-interference pro-slavery resolution ; the Whigs 
nominated Gen. Taylor, the hero of the Mexican war, and 
voted down the Wilmot anti-slavery proviso. Both parties 
were evading the slavery question. The Free-Soil Democrats 
(“Barnburners”) of New York left the Democratic Conven¬ 
tion, and took part in the Free-Soil Convention at Buffalo, 
which declared that Congress had no more power to make a 
slave than to make a king, and nominated Martin Van Buren 
and Charles Francis Adams. The Whigs triumphed, and 
Gen. Zachary Taylor, a slaveholder, became twelfth Presi¬ 
dent (1849-1850), and was succeeded on his death by the 
Vice-President, Millard Fillmore, thirteenth President (1850-53). 

Parties were disintegrating, and the Free-Soilers held the 
balance of power in the House, so that a Speaker was elected 
only by an agreement that a majority vote should not be re¬ 
quired. The pro-slavery wing of the Whigs favored the 
“ Squatter (or Popular) Sovereignty ” doctrine of non-inter¬ 
ference with the choice of the citizens of a territory or State 
as to slavery, but when the discovery of gold, 1849, caused 
a rapid settlement of California, this worked against slavery. 
The Clay compromise of 1850, under which California was 
admitted as a free State, included the famous Fugitive Slave 
Law, commanding all good citizens to aid in returning fugitive 
slaves, without trial by jury, which was met by the passage 
of Personal Liberty Laws in several Northern States. The 
Democratic Convention renewed strict constructionist pledges, 
upheld the Fugitive Slave Law, and opposed anti-slavery 
agitation, and nominated Pierce; the Whigs renewed their 
broad construction platform, but took like ground as to slavery, 
and nominated Gen. Scott. The Free-Soil Democrats de¬ 
nounced slavery as a “sin against God and a crime against 
man,” and nominated John P. Hale. FranKlin Pierce was 

•164 


U. S. POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 

elected fourteenth President (1853-57) with W. R. King as 
Vice-President. 

Nebraska and Kansas now became the fighting-ground of 
slavery. The Kansas-Nebraska bill proposed to repeal the 
compromise of 1820 and leave slavery north of 36° 30' an 
open question. The “Anti-Nebraska men” left the other 
Whigs, and afterward became the new Republican party. 
The new “American party,” or “Know Nothings,” arose at 
this time as an oath-bound secret organization, opposing the 
election of any but native Americans to office, and held the 
balance of power in the House. Kansas was invaded by 
“Border Ruffians” from Missouri, in the interest of slavery, 
but Northern abolitionists met them with permanent colonies 
of settlers ; rival governments and constitutions were estab¬ 
lished, and civil war virtually raged. The President sided 
with the pro-slavery legislation and declared the free State 
government in rebellion. During the excitement Senator 
Sumner was assaulted and nearly killed by Representative 
Brooks, of South Carolina. The tariff of 1857 further reduced 
duties. 

The Republicans had now become a distinct party, advo¬ 
cating broad construction and internal improvements, es¬ 
pecially a railway to the Pacific, and opposing any extension 
of slavery. They nominated Gen. Fremont. The Know- 
Nothings and the remnant of the Whigs nominated Fillmore. 
The Democrats, on a strict constructionist and “ Squatter 
Sovereignty ” platform, nominated and elected James Buchanan 
fifteenth President (1857-61) with John C. Breckenridge as 
Vice-President. The famous Dred Scott decision of the 
Supreme Court was promulgated two days after Buchanan’s 
inauguration ; it declared that a slave was no citizen, but a 
“thing,” that the compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional, 
and that a slave-owner could settle with his property in any 
territory. The South, in view of the admission of new free 
States, sought to renew its political power by favoring the 
purchase of Cuba, “filibustering” in Central America to gain 
territory for new slave states, and even the renewal of the 
slave trade, which had been prohibited by the Constitution 
from 1808. This administration was a turmoil on the verge of 
war, and the raid of John Brown into Virginia, to incite a 
| slave revolt, followed by Brown’s execution, in 1859, added 
fuel to the flames. 

The Democratic Convention split in two, the “ Popular 
j Sovereignty” men nominated Douglas, and the pro-slavery 
| men, Breckenridge. The Constitutional Union party, the 
remnant of the Know-Nothings, with an evasive “ Union ” 

165 




U. S . POLITICAL HIS TORT IN BRIEF. 

platform, nominated John Bell. The Republicans, on an out¬ 
spoken platform declaring that freedom was the normal con¬ 
dition of the territories, which Congress was bound to pre¬ 
serve, elected Abraham Lincoln sixteenth President (1861-65) 
with Hannibal Hamlin as Vice-President. South Carolina 
adopted an ordinance of secession, December 20, i860, and 
six other States at once joined her. The President declared that 
he saw no way of compelling a State’s obedience to United 
States laws. The proposed Crittenden Compromise, that 
the United States should pay for rescued slaves, and a Peace 
Congress at Washington, came to nothing. In February, 1861, 
the seceding States formed, at Montgomery, Ala., the Confed¬ 
erate States of America, adopting the U. S. Constitution with 
changes recognizing slavery and forbidding protective tariff's, 
and electing Jefferson Davis President and Alex. H. Stephens 
Vice-President. Fort Sumter was attacked and surrendered 
April 14, 1861. 

The North determined to preserve the Union at any cost, 
and in this cause the Republicans had the help of the War 
Democrats, leaving the “Copperheads” or pro-Southern Dem¬ 
ocrats in a small minority. All questions of strict construction 
were put aside ; and war powers were held to be unlimited. 
The Morrill protective tariff bill, and acts to authorize loans 
and Treasury notes had been passed by the adjourning Con¬ 
gress. In the Thirty-ninth Congress only the Northern and 
Border States were represented, and an extra session voted 
to consider only “war measures.” Southern ports were de¬ 
clared closed, 500,000 volunteers were called for, and private 
property, including slaves employed against the United States, 
was confiscated. Subsequently a homestead law was passed, 
duties were raised, internal revenue and an income tax 
levied, the “greenback” system of Secretary Chase author¬ 
ized, the national banking act passed, a draft for the army 
provided, leading to the draft riots in New York in 1863, 
and the writ of habeas corpus suspended. Gen. Butler had 
declared slaves “contraband of war,” and now, justified by 
political necessity, President Lincoln issued, January 1, 1863, his 
Proclamation of Emancipation. After four years of ups and 
downs, during which there were over 2,800,000 enlistments, 
and the North had at times “a million in the field,” the war 
ended by the surrender of Gen. Lee to Gen. Grant at Appomat¬ 
tox, 1865. Meanwhile President Lincoln had been re-elected, 
on a Republican platform of “unconditional surrender,” with 
Andrew Johnson as Vice-President, against the candidate of 
the Democracy, Gen. McClellan, and the opposition of the 
extreme “ Radical Men,” who nominated Gen. Fremont. 

166 




U. S. POLITICAL HIST OR r IN BRIEF. 

The problem of Reconstruction now arose—how to make the 
seceded States again a part of the Union. Before this was 
solved, Abraham Lincoln was assassinated, and Andrew Johnson 
became seventeenth President (1865-69). Congress held that 
the Southern States should be treated as territories under 
military governors, until guaranties were given as to the 
freed slaves, while the President’s strict constructionist policy 
of reconstruction held, that only individuals could be pun¬ 
ished, and that the States were in the Union. Congress 
passed the Freedmen’s Bureau bill, the civil rights bill, and 
submitted the Fourteenth Amendment, all safeguards for the 
negroes. The differences between Congress and the President 
resulted in several bills to limit his power, especially the 
tenure-of-office act, in a tour of the President, “swinging round 
the circle,” in which he declared that this was “ no Congress,” 
and finally in his impeachment by Congress, which failed when 
tried by the Senate, for lac-k of one vote to make the constitu¬ 
tional two-thirds. 

Gen. Ulysses S. Grant was elected eighteenth President 
(1869-1877), with Schuyler Colfax as Vice-President, on a Re¬ 
publican platform indorsing the provision of Congress that 
the States should be re admitted only as they accepted the 
Fourteenth Amendment. His Democratic opponent was Hora¬ 
tio Seymour. The Fifteenth Amendment, guaranteeing suf¬ 
frage to the negroes, was passed by Congress in 1869. By 
July, 1870, all the States had been re-admitted, but in several 
the governments were put in control of the negroes and cor¬ 
rupt white immigrants called “carpet-baggers,” and Federal aid 
was asked for and received, as in Arkansas and Louisiana, to 
support these governments. In 1872 Gen. Grant was re-elected, 
with Henry Wilson as Vice-President, over Horace Greeley, 
the “ Liberal Republican ” candidate, accepted by the Democrats, 
who died before the electoral votes were cast. Among 
other events of Gen. Grant’s administration were his attempt 
to purchase San Domingo, the trial of the “ Whisky Ring,” 
implicating high officials, the futile establishment of the first 
Civil Service Commission under the Jenckes bill, the treaty of 
Washington, involving the payment by England of losses by 
the Alabama , and the Centennial Exhibition, 1876. 

Rutherford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, became nine¬ 
teenth President (1877-1881), with William A. Wheeler as 
Vice-President, against Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic- 
candidate. The “ Greenback ” party also nominated Peter 
Cooper. The popular majority was for the Democratic can¬ 
didate, and in the Electoral College the choice was uncertain. 
Under the “returning board” system of the readmitted States, 

167 


U. S. POLITICAL HISTORY IN BRIEF. 


rival electors claimed to be elected in Florida and Louisiana; 
each side charged the other with fraud and violence, and there 
was no provision in the Constitution to meet the case. Civil 
dissension was averted by agreement on an Electoral Com¬ 
mission of judges, senators and representatives, which, by 
a majority of one, on a strictly party vote, awarded the votes 
to the Hayes electors. There was much dissatisfaction with 
this extra-constitutional method ‘and. its result. President 
Hayes withdrew the remaining U. S. troops from the Southern 
States. The chief events of Hayes’ administration were the 
resumption of specie payments (1879), the silver coinage act, 
the taking of the tenth census (1880), and the President’s 
message regarding an inter-oceanic canal as “ virtually a part 
of the coast line of the United States.” 

Gen. James A. Garfield was next elected President (1881), 
being nominated by the Republican Convention after a failure 
to put forward Gen. Grant for a third term, with Chester A. 
Arthur as Vice-President, who became twenty-first President 
(1881-85) on assassination of Garfield by a disappointed 
office-seeker. Garfield had been opposed by Gen. Hancock as 
the Democratic candidate, on a platform of “ a tariff for rev¬ 
enue only,” which was, however, put aside in the campaign ; 
and by a Greenback candidate, Gen. Weaver. The principal 
events of this administration were the bill to restrict the 
Chinese immigration; the Conference tariff bill of 1883, 
which purported to reduce duties ; the failure of the Spanish 
reciprocity tactics ; and the passage of the Pendleton bill for 
civil-service reform'. 

Grover Cleveland was elected twenty-second President (1885), 
with Thomas A. Hendricks as Vice-President, by the Demo¬ 
cratic party, with the help of the “ Independents.” He was 
opposed also by a Prohibition candidate, St. John, and a 
Greenback candidate, Gen. Butler. His declaration that 
“public office is a public trust” was the key-note of his cam¬ 
paign. 

From the close of the third party period, about 1872, until 
the election of Grover Cleveland, the two great parties were 
not divided on clear issues, but, as in the earlj'- slavery 
agitation, avoided discussions that might involve defeat, such 
as the tariff question. The lines were “ rather cross parties 
than between them.” Cleveland’s celebrated message on the 
tariff question, however, brought that issue prominently before 
the people, and it was on a platform of tariff reform that 
Cleveland was renominated by the Democratic party in 1888. 
The Republicans accepted the issue, and Benjamin Harrison, 
their candidate, was elected President, and Levi P. Morton 

168 



PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Vice-President, on a platform of “protection,” receiving a 
majority of the electoral vote, although the popular majority, 
according to the official counts, was in favor of the Democratic 
candidate. 


PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Name. 

Native State 

Ancestry. 

Residence. 

In; 

UR^ 

d 

< 

w 

>< 

tUG- 

lTED. 

W 

0 

< 

Politics. 

Place of Death. 

George Washington. 

Va.. 

English... 

Va. 

1789 

57 

Fed... 

Mount Vernon, 1799 

John Adams. 

Mass.. 

English... 

Mass.. 

1797 

62 

Fed... 

Quincy, Mass, 1826 

Thomas J efferson... 

Va.. . 

Welsh .... 

Va. . 

1801 

58 

Rep.. 

Monticello.Va, 1826 

James Madison.... 

Va.. . 

English... 

Va. .. 

1809 

58 

Rep.. 

Montpelier,Va, 1836 

James Monroe. 

Va.. . 

Scotch.... 

Va. 

1817 

59 

Rep.. 

New York City, 1831 

John Quincy Adams. 

Mass.. 

English... 

Mass.. 

1825 

58 

Rep.. 

Washington, 1848 

Andrew Jackson.... 

S. C.. 

Scot-Irish. 

Tenn 

1829 

62 

Dem.. 

Hermitage, Ten.’45 

Martin Van Buren.. 

N.Y 

Dutch .... 

N.Y.. 

1837 

55 

Dem.. 

Kinderhook N Y,’62 

William H. Harrison 

Va.. . 

English... 

Ohio . 

1841 

58 

Whig. 

Washington, 1841 

John Tyler. 

Va.. . 

English... 

Va. .. 

1841 

51 

Dem.. 

Richmond, Va, 1862 

James K. Polk. 

N.C.. 

Scot-Irish. 

Tenn. 

1845 

60 

Dem.. 

Nashville,Ten, 1849 

Zachary Taylor. 

Va.. . 

English... 

La.. . 

1849 

55 

Whig. 

Washington, 1850 

Millard Fillmore.... 

N.Y, . 

English... 

N.Y 

1850 

50 

Whig. 

Buffalo, N Y. 1874 

Franklin Pierce. 

N. H. 

English... 

N. H. 

1853 

49 

Dem.. 

Concord, N H, 1869 

James Buchanan.... 

Pa . 

Scot-Irish. 

Pa.. . 

1857 

60 

Dem.. 

Wheatland, Pa, 1868 

Abraham Lincoln... 

Ky... 

English... 

Ill.... 

1861 

52 

Rep.. 

Washington, 1865 

Andrew Johnson.... 

N.C.. 

English... 

Tenn. 

1865 

57 

Rep.. 

Greenville,Tenn,’75 

Ulysses S. Grant_ 

Ohio . 

Scotch.... 

Ill.... 

1869 

47 

Rep.. 

MtM’Gregor,NY’85 

Rutherford B. Hayes 

Ohio . 

English... 

Ohio . 

1877 

55 

Rep.. 


Tames A. Garfield... 

Ohio . 

English... 

Ohio . 

1881 

49 

Rep.. 

Long Branch, 1881 

Chester A. Arthur... 

Vt.. . 

Scot-Irish 

N.Y.. 

1881 

51 

Rep.. 

New York City, 1886 

Grover Cleveland ... 

N. J.. 

English... 

N.Y.. 

1885 

48 

Dem.. 


Benjamin Harrison.. 

Ohio . 

English... 

Ind... 

1889 

56 

Rep.. 



GENERALS COMMANDING THE U. S. ARMY. 



From 

To 


From 

To 

George Washington 

Henry Knox. 

Josiah Harmer. 

Arthur St. Clair . . 
James Wilkinson. . . 
George Washington 
James Wilkinson. . . 
Henry Dearborn.. . 
Jacob Brown . 

1775 

1783 

1788 

1791 

1796 

1799 

1800 
1812 
1815 

1783 

1784 
1791 
1796 

1798 

1799 
1812 
1815 
1828 

Alexander Macomb.. . 

Winfield Scott. 

George B. McClellan. 
Henry W. Halleck.. .. 

Ulysses S. Grant. 

William T. Sherman. 
Philip H. Sheridan.. . 
John M. Schofield. . . . 

1828 

1841 

1861 

1862 

1864 

1869 

1883 

1888 

1841 

1861 

1862 

1864 

1869 

1883 

1888 


If a railway were built to the sun, and trains upon it were 
run at the rate of 30 miles an hour, day and night, without a stop, 
it would require 350 years to make the journey from the earth to 
the sun. 169 
















































WARS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


Statement of the Number of United States Troops Engaged. 


Wars. 

From— 

To— 

Regu¬ 

lars. 

Militia 

and 

Volun¬ 

teers. 

Total. 

War of the Revolution... 
Northwestern Indian wars 

War with France. 

War with Tripoli. 

Apr 19,1775 
Sept 19,1790 
July 9,1798 
June 10,1801 
July 27,1813 

Apr 11. 1783 
Aug . 3, 1795 
Sept 30, 1800 
June 4 ,1805 
Aug 9,1814 

130,711 

164,080 

309,781 

8,983 

*4,593 

*3,330 

13,781 

Creek Indian war. 

600 

13,181 

War 1812 with Gt. Britain 

June 18,1812 

Feb 17,1815 

85,000 

471,622 

576,622 

Seminole Indian war. 

Nov 20,1817 

Oct 21,1818 
Sept 31,1832 

1,000 

6,911 

7,911 

Black Hawk Indian war. 
Cherokee disturbance or 

Apr 21,1831 

1,339 

5,126 

6,465 

removal. 

Creek Indian war or dis¬ 

1836 

1837 


9.494 

9,494 

turbance . 

May 5,1836 

Sept 30,1837 

935 

12,483 

13,418 

Florida Indian war. 

Dec 23,1835 

Aug 14,1843 

11,169 

29,953 

41,122 

Aroostook disturbance... 

1838 

1839 

1,500 

1,500 

War with Mexico. 

Apache, Navajo, and 

Apr 24,1846 

July 4,1848 

30,954 

73,776 

112,230 

Utah war . 

1849 

1856 

1855 

1,500 

1,061 

3,687 

2,561 

2,687 

Seminole Indian war. 

1858 

Civil wart. 

1861 

1865 


2,772,408 


* Naval forces engaged. T The number of troops on the Confederate side was 
about 600,000. 


The number of casualties in the volunteer and regular 
armies of the United States, .during the war of 1861-65, was re " 
ported by the Provost Marshal General in 1866: Killed in battle, 
61,362; died of wounds, 34,727; died of disease, 183,287; total 
died, 279,376 ; total deserted, 199,105. Number of soldiers in the 
Confederate service who died of wounds or disease (partial state¬ 
ment), 133,821. Deserted (partial statement), 104,428. Number 
of United States troops captured during the war, 212,608 ; Con¬ 
federate troops captured, 476,169. Number of United States 
troops paroled on the field, 16,431 ; Confederate troops paroled 
on the field, 248,599. Number of United States troops who died 
while prisoners, 29,725 ; Confederate troops who died while pris¬ 
oners, 26,774. 

The Bible. 

There is no date from beginning to end in the Bible. It com¬ 
prises some 60 documents, and is supposed to have been written 
by about 40 men ; 54 miracles are recorded in the Old and 51 in 
the New Testament; total, 105. The shortest verse in the Old 
Testament is “Remember Lot’s wife.” There is one in the New 
Testament as short as John xi. 35, in point of words, but not in 
letters, viz: Thessalonians v. 16, “Rejoice evermore.” Then 
there are 2 chapters in the Bible alike verbatim, and 1 book, 
Esther, in which the Deity is not mentioned. 

170 







































THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65. 


Number of Men in the Union Army Furnished by Each State and 
Territory, from April 15,1861, to Close of War. 


States and 
Territories. 


Alabama. 

Arkansas. 

California. 

Colorado. 

Connecticut. 

Delaware. 

Florida. 

Georgia. 

Illinois. 

Indiana. 

Iowa. 

Kansas. 

Kentucky. 

Louisiana '. 

Maine. 

Maryland. 

Massachusetts .. 

Michigan. 

Minnesota. 

Mississippi. 

Missouri. 

Nebraska. 

Nevada. 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey. 


Number 
of Men 
Furnish’d 

Aggregate 
Reduced to 
a Three 
Years’ 
Standing. 

States and 
Territories. 

Number 
of Men 
Furnish’d 

Ag’regate 
Reduced 
to a Three 
Years’ 
Standing. 

2,556 

1,611 

New York. 

448,850 

392,270 

8,289 

7,836 

North Carolina. 

3,156 

3,156 

15,725 

15,725 

Ohio. 

313,180 

240,514 

4,903 

3,697 

Oregon. ,, 

1,810 

1,773 

55,864 

50,623 

Pennsylvania 

337,936 

265,517 

12,284 

10,322 

Rhode Island... 

23,236 

17,866 

1,290 

1,290 

South Carolina.. 





Tennessee .. 

31 092 

*26 3Q4 

259,092 

214,133 

Texas. 

L965 

XjVJ ytJC/T: 

1,632 

196,363 

153,576 

Vermont. 

33,288 

29,068 

76,242 

68,630 

Virginia. 



20,149 

18,706 

West Virginia.,. 

32,068 

27,714 

• 75,760 

70,832 

Wisconsin. 

91,327 

79,260 

5,224 

4,654 

Dakota. 

206 

206 

70,107 

56,776 

Dist of Columbia 

16 534 

11,506 

46,638 

41,275 

Indian Territory 

3,530 

3,530 

146,730 

124,104 

Montana... 



87,304 

80,111 

New Mexico.... 

6,561 

4,432 

24,020 

19,693 

Utah. 



545 

545 

Washington Ter. 

964 

964 

109,111 

86,530 

U S Army. 



3,157 

2,175 

U S Volunteers. 



1,080 

1,080 

U S colYd troops 

93,441 

91,789 

33,937 

30,849 




76,814 

57,908 

Total. 

2,772,408 

2,320,272 


The armies of the United States were commanded during the 
war of the Rebellion by President Lincoln as commander-in¬ 
chief under the- constitutional provision; and under him, as 
general commanders, by Brevet Lieutenant General Winfield 
Scott until Nov. 6, 1861; by Major General George B. McClellan 
from Nov. 6, 1861, to March n, 1862; by Major General Henry 
W. Halleck from July 11, 1862, to March 12, 1864 (there be¬ 
ing no general commander between March 11 and July n, 
1862); and Lieutenant General and General U. S. Grant from 
March 12, 1864, to March 4, 1869. The first of the principal 
armies into which the force of the United States was 
divided was the Army of the Potomac. This army was 
called into existence in July, 1861, and was organized 
by Major General George B. McClellan, its first commander; 
Nov. 5, 1862, Major General A. E. Burnside took com¬ 
mand of it; Jan. 25, 1863, Major General Joe Hooker was 
placed in command, and June 27, 1863, Major General George 
G. Meade succeeded him. The Army of the Ohio was organ¬ 
ized by General D. C. Buell, under a general order from the 

171 



































































THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65. 


War Department dated Nov. 9, 1861, from troops in the military 
department of the Ohio. General Buell remained in command 
until Oct. 30, 1862, when he was succeeded by General W. S. 
Rosecrans. At this time the Army of the Ohio became the 
Army of the Cumberland and a new department of the Ohio 
was formed and Major General H. G. Wright assigned to the 
command thereof. He was succeed by Major General Burn¬ 
side, who was relieved by Major General J. G. Foster of the 
command of both department and army. Major General Scho¬ 
field took command Jan. 28, 1864, and Jan. 17, 1865, the de¬ 
partment was merged into the Department of the Cumberland. 
The Army of the Cumberland was formed of the Army of the 
Ohio, as above noted. It continued under the command of Gen¬ 
eral Rosecrans until October, 1863, when General George H. 
Thomas took command of it. The Army of theTennessee was 
originally the Army of the District of Western Tennessee, 
fighting as such at Shiloh. It became the Army of theTennessee 
on the concentration of troops at Pittsburgh Landing under Gen¬ 
eral Halleck, and when the Department of the Tennessee was 
formed,Oct. 16,1862, the troops serving therein were placed under 
command of Major General U. S. Grant. Oct. 27, 1863, Major 
General William T. Sherman was appointed to the command of 
this army; March 12, 1864, Major General J. B. McPherson suc¬ 
ceeded him; July 30, 1864, McPherson having been killed, Major 
General O. O. Howard was placed in command, and May 19, 
I862, Major General John A. Logan succeeded him. Other 
minor armies were the Army of Virginia, which was formed by 
the consolidation of the forces under Major Generals Fremont, 
Banks and McDowell, by order of the War Department, Aug. 
12, 1862. Major General John Pope was placed in command, 
but after the disastrous defeat of this general at Manassas the 
army as such was discontinued and its troops transferred to other 
organizations. The Army of the James was formed of the Tenth 
and Fourteenth corps and cavalry, and was placed under the 
command of Major General Butler. Its operations were carried 
on in conjunction with the Army of the Potomac. Other tem¬ 
porary arrangements of the troops formed the Army of the Mis¬ 
sissippi in the Mississippi River operations in 1862; the Army of 
the.Gulf in Louisiana in May, 1863; the Army of West Vir¬ 
ginia, in the valley of the Shenandoah, in May, 1864, and the 
army of the Middle Military Division in Virginia in the fall of 


A horse will live 25 days without solid food, merely drinking 
water; 17 days without either eating or drinking; and only c 
days when eating solid food without drinking. 

172 



5 

12 

21 

10 

■14 

20 

21 

7 

7 

8 

18 

862 

8 

8 

16 

8 

14 

23 

6-7 

10 

5 

25 

29 

30 

31 

1 

8 

9 

26 

27 

1 

5 

9 

22 

27 

29 

30 

-30 

1 

14 

15 

17 

-20 

3-5 

8 

7 

13 

-29 

.863 

11 

3 

1 


PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR 


Place. 

Federal Loss. 

Bombard’nt Ft. Sumter 

.no one hurt 

Riot Baltimore. 

.3 k, 7 w 

Big Bethel, Va. 

.16 k, 34 w, 6 m 

Carthage, Mo. 

.13 k, 31 vv 

Rich Mountain. W. Va . 

.11 k, 35 w 

Bull Run, Va. 

.. .4500 k; w, p, 28 c 

Wilson’s Creek, Mo. 

Cheat Mountain, W. Va. 
Lexington, Mo. 

. .481 k, 1011 w, 700 p 
.223 k, 721 w, 292 m 

.13 k, 20 w, 60 P 

.. 42 k, 108 w, 1624 p 

Ball’s Bluff, Va. 

. .220 k, 266 w, 500 p 

Belmont, Mo. 

.. .84 k, 288 w, 285 m 

Port Royal, S. C. 


Piketon, Ky. 


Milford, Mo. 

.2 k, 17 w 

Mill Spring, Kv . 

.39 k,207w 

Roanoke Island, C... 


port Henry, Tenn. 


Fort Donelson, Tenn... 
P^aRjdge, Ark , t . 

• 446 k. 1735 w, 150 P 

... .1351 k, w and m 

NVwbern, N. C tT . 

.91 k, 466 w 

Winchester, Va . 


Pittsburg Landing, Tenn. 

1614 k, 7721 w, 3963 m 

Williamsburg, Va. 

.. .2073 k & w, 623 p 




.53 k, 526 m 



Fpir Oaks, Va . 

890 k, 3627 w, 1222 p 

F;iir Oaks, Va . 

.5739 k&w 

G foss TC eyS, Va.. 

.125 k, 500 w 

Port Republic, Va. 

. ..67 k, 361 w, 574 m 

OhRkahominy. Va. 

.80 k, 150w 





Raton Roiltre. La. 


Gedar Mountain. Va. 



64 k, 100 w, 200 p 

Kettle Run. Va. 

.800 k, w and m 

Groveton, Va. TT . 

.6000 k, and w 

Bull Run 2nd. 

.800 k, 4000 w, 3000 p 

Richmond. Ky . 

..200 k, 700 w, 2000P 

Chantilly, Va , . 

.1300 k and w 

South mountain, Md. 

Harper’s F’y, 3 d’ys’ siege 
Antietam, Md . 

. 443 k, 1806 w, 76 m 
.80 k, 120 w, 11583 p 
.12500 loss 

Tuka, Miss . 

.135 k, 527 w 

Corinth. Miss. 

315 k, 1812 w, 232 m 

Perryville, Ky. 

..3200 k, w and m 

Prairie Grove, Ark . 

.495 k, 600 w 

Fredericksburg, Va. 

Vicksburg . 

1512 k. 6000 w, 2078 p 
. .191 k, 982 w, 756 m 

Stone River. Tenn. 

.1533 k, 6000 w 

Fort Hindman, Ark . 

.1000 k, w & m 

Fort Tlonelson, Tenn . .. 

.12 k, 20 w 

Suffolk, Va.... 

_130 k, 718 w, 5 m 


CONFED. LOSS. 


.5 W 

.7 k, 8 W 

.no report 

.. ..250 k & w 

.140 k. 150 w 

.1852 k&w. 

...421 k. 1317 w. 3 m 

.100 k & w, 20 p 

.....25 k, 75 w 

.36' k, 264 w, 2 p 

..261 k, 427 w, 278 m 
. .k and w no report 

_2500 p. 42 guns c 

. 400 k and w, 2000 p 

.1300 p 

.192 k, 140 p 

.. ..30 k, 50 w, 2500 p 

231 k, 1007 w, 15000 p 
1100 k. 2500 w, 1600 p 
.. .50 k. 200 w, 200 p 
... .600 k&w, 300 p 
1728 k, 8012 w, 959 m 

.17 k, 6300 p 

.700 k, 1000 w, 300 p 

"sod k&w; 6oo p 

::;;::28o6‘k. 3897 w 

. 8000 k&w 

. 600 k&w 

.1000 k, w & m 

.1000 k&w 

.About the same 

.Nearly 5000 

.600 k, w & m 

.1000 k, 1500 w 

.110 k&w 

...800 k&w, 1000 P 
.12000 k, w & m 

.700 k, 3000 w 

.250 k, 500w 

.800 k&w 

500 k, 2343 w, 1500 P 

.1500 k&w 

.15000 loss 

. .263 k, 400 w, 600 P 
1423 k, 2268 p, 5692 w 
1300 k, 3000 w, 200 p 

.1500 k&w 

.1800 k&w 

.no report 

. .9000 k&w, 1000 p 
.. .550 k&w, 5000 p 
. .100 k, 400 w, 300 p 
.1500 k, w & m 


173 



































































































PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR .—Continued. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal Loss. 

CONFED. LOSS. 

May 

1 

LaGrange, Ark. 

. 2000 k, w & m 


2 

Fredericksburg, Va. 

. 2000 k & w 


a 

2-3 

Chancellorsville, Va. 

15000 k & w, 17000 p 

.18000 k & w, 5000 p 

<< 

12 

Tackson, Miss. 

.40 k, 240 w, 6 m 

.400 k & w 

< < 

14 

Champion Hills, Miss.... 

.426 k, 1842 w 

.400 k, w & m 


16 

Big Black River, Miss.... 

.29 k, 242 w 

.2600 k, w & m 

* «< 

18-22 

Vicksburg. Miss. 

.2500 loss 

.no report 

«« 

27 

Port Hudson 


.600 k, w & m 

June 

6 

Milliken’s Bend, Miss.... 

. ,127 k, 287 w, 157 m 

.200 k, 500 w 

4 t 

9 

Beverly Ford, Va 


. 750 k. w & m 

44 

14 

Winchester, Va. 


.850 k, w & m 

« « 

26 

Shelbyville, Tenn. 

... .85 k, 468 vv, 13 m 

1634 p,no rep’t k & w 
.total loss 37000 

July 

44 

1-2-3 

Gettysburg, Pa. 

.total loss 28198 

4 

Vicksburg surrenders.. 

.245 k, 3688 w, 303 p 

.9000 k & w, 30000 P 

(( 

4 

Helena, Ark . 

.250 k, w & m 

.. .500 k & w, 1000 p 
.4000 p 

(( 

5 

Bolton, Miss. 


44 

8 

Port Hudson surrenders. . 


.5500 p 

44 

18-19 

Ft. Wagner, S. C. 


.500 k, 331 w 

Sept. 

9 

Cumberland Gap. 


... 2000 p 


19-20 

Chickamauga. 

1644 k,9262 w,4945 m 
.51 k,329w 

.17000 k, w & m 

< 4 

14 

Bristow Station, Va. 

.. .1200 k & w, 800 p 
.1600 p 

Dec. 

4 

Knoxville, Tenn. 


4 < 

23-25 

Chattanooga . 


.16000k, w&m 

44 

25 

Missionary Ridge. 



4 » 

27 

Ringgold, Ga. 


.300 p 

4 4 

27-30 

Locust Grove. Va. 


.2500 k, w & p 

Mar. 25,1864 

Paducah, Ky. 


. 1000 k & w 

Apr. 

8-9 

Mansfield, La. 

500 k & w, 15Q0 p 

. 2000 p 

17-20 

Plymouth, N. C. 


.1500 k & w 

May 

5-7 

Wilderness, Va. 


. loss 3000(1 

44 

44 

Spottslyvania, Va. 


.loss 10000 

44 

12 

Spottsylvania, Va. 



44 

12-15 

Ft. Darling, Va. 


. no report 

4 4 

13-15 

Resaca, Ga. 


. no reDort 

44 

25-28 

Dallas, Ga. 


.. .300 p, 4000 k & w 

June 

1 

Cold Harbor, Va .... 


“ 

15-18 

Petersburgh, Va. 



44 

22 

Weldon R. R„ Va ... 



44 

27 

Kennesaw Mt., Ga. 



July 

9 

Monocracy, Md. 



44 

20 

Peach Tree Creek, Ga 


. .5000 k & w, 1000 p 

44 

22 

Atlanta, Ga . 


44 

27-30 

Petersburgh, Va 



Aug. 

44 

5-20 

Mobile Bay, Ala , 


no rep’t k &w, 1756 p 

15-18 

Deep Bottom, Va 


<4 

19 

6 Mile Station, Va . 


1500 p 

44 

25 

Weldon R. R., Va . 



44 

31 

Atlanta, Ga. 



SepL 

44 

19 

Winchester, Va . 


500 k, 4000 w, 2500 p 
-400 k & w, 1100 p 

21 

Fisher’s Hill 


4 4 

26 

Ironton, Mo. 


29— 

Oct. 1 

Petersburg, Va. 


2800 k & w 

Oct. 

19 

Cedar Creek, Va. 

4000 k & w 1 SOO n 

. .2800 k & w, 1300 p 
Q 00 k r> 

44 

26 

Nims’ Creek, Mo. 

. .2000 p, 1000 k & w 

44 

Nov. 

27 

Hatcher’s Run, Va. 

800 m, 400 k, 1500 w 
189 k, 1033 w, H04 m 


30 

Franklin, Tenn. 

1750 k, 3800 w, 702 p 

Dec. 

15 

Nashville, Tenn. 


174 












































































































PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE CIVIL WAR.— Concluded. 


Date. 

Place. 

Federal Loss. 

CONFED. LOSS. 

Jan. 

15,1865 

Ft. Fisher .... 

.HO k, 536 w 

....440 k & w, 2500 p 
. 1072 p 

20-22 

Wilmington, N. C. 


Feb. 

27 

Waynesboro’, Va. 

....69 k & w 

.5 k, 1352 p 

it 

it 

Kingston, N. C. 


. .1200 k & w, 2400 p 
.. 327 k, 373 p 

ft 

ii 

Averasboro’, N. C. 

.74 k,774 w 

Mar. 

19 

Bentonville, N. C. 


. 167 k, 1625 p 

44 

25-27 

Pefersburgh, Va . 

180 k, 1240 w, 990 m 

...2200 k&w, 2800 p 
. 5000 p 

Apr. 

1 

Five Forks, Va. 


4 « 

2 

Selma, Ala . 


. 3000 p 

a 

2-3 

Petersburgh & Richmond . 

.8000 k. w & m 

.9000 k, w & m 


6 

Farmville & Sailors Ck 


.6000 p 

ii 

9 

Surrender of Gen. Lee 


.26115 p 

l< 

11 

Ft. Blakely, Mobile 


.. ..500 k&w, 4300 p 
.2700 p, 100 g 

44 

12 

Surrender of Mong’y, Ala 


ii 

12 

Salisbury, N. C. 


.1800 p 

ff 

26 

Surrender of Gen.Johnston 
Surrender of Gen. Morgan 
Surrender of. 


.27500 p 

May 

1 


.1200 p 

ii 

4 


.10000 p 

44 

10 

SurrenderofTallahasseeFl 

.70 k 

.8000 p 

a 

10 

Near Boco, Chico, Tex 

.70 


a 

10 

Capture of Jeff. Davis.... 



tt 

26 

Surrender of Gen. Smith. 




In addition to the battles given above there were 421 minor battles, engage¬ 
ments and skirmishes. 


Principal Naval Battles of tlie Civil War. 

1862, Feb. 6—Fort Henry, Tenn., captured by Commodore 

Foote. 

Feb. 8—Roanoke Island, N. C., captured by Commodore 
Goldsborough and Gen. Burnside. 

16— Fort Donelson, Tenn., combined forces of Gen. 

Grant and Commodore Foote. 

Mar. 8—Confederate ram Merrimac “ sinks ” U. S. Frig¬ 
ates Cumberland and Congress, Hampton 
Roads, Va. 

9—Federal Monitor disables the Merrimac. 

April 6—Pittsburgh Landing. 

8—Capture of Island No. 10. 

11—Fort Pulaski, Ga., caotured by land and naval 
forces. 

24—Forts Jackson, St. Phillip and New Orleans. 

May 13—Natchez, Miss., captured by Admiral Farragut. 
July 1—Malvern Hill. 

1863, Jan. 11—Fort Hindman, Ark., Admiral Porter; 

11—U. S. steamer Hatteras sunk by Confederate 
Alabama. 

17— Monitor Weehawken captures Confederate ram 

Atlanta. 


175 














































THE CIVIL WAR OF 1861-65. 


Mayi8—Vicksburg, Miss., Admiral Porter. 

July 8—Port Hudson, Miss., captured. 

8—Natchez, Miss. 

1864, June 19—U. S. steamer Kearsarge “ sinks the Alabama ” off 

Cherbourg, France. 

Aug. 5—Mobile, Ala., Admiral Farragut. 

1865, Jan. 15—Fort Fisher, N. C., captured by Gen. Terry and 

Commodore Porter. * 

During the Civil War the Federal Navy was increased in two 
years to over 400 vessels, the greater part of which were used in 
blockading Southern ports ; notwithstanding their vigilance and 
effectiveness, many Confederate cruisers managed to escape the 
blockade and destroy the Northern merchant vessels. 

At the present time (1880) not one-half the vessels belonging 
to the navy are in active service ; the greater portion of those 
in commission are employed in what is called squadron service. 
There are seven squadrons, viz, the European, the Asiatic, the 
North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the North Pacific, the 
South Pacific and the Gulf squadrons. These squadrons are 
under command of a high naval officer of the rank of commo¬ 
dore or rear admiral, whose ship is called the flag-ship of the 
squadron. 


Federal Vessels Captured or Destroyed toy Con¬ 
federate “ Cruisers.” 


Ships .... 
Brigs .... 
Barks .... 
Schooners 


80 

46 

84 

67 


Steamboats. 
Gunboats. .. 

Cutter. 

Tug. 


4 

2 

1 

1 


Vessels Captured or Destroyed for Violation of the 
Blockade, or in Battle, from may, 

1861, to may, 1865. 


Schooners.... 



Gunboats. 

. 3 

Sloops. 



Propellers. 

. 4 

Steamers. 


... 262 

Pilot boats. 

. 2 

Barks. 



Boats. 

. 8 

Brigs. 


... 30 

Yachts. 


Ships. 



Tugs . 

. 3 

Ironclads and 

rams . . 

... 16 

Barkentine. 


Brigantines. .. 

Miscellaneous . 

Pungv . 

. 86 

. 1 


Tin, when compressed in powder, becomes solid under a pres¬ 
sure of ten tons on the square inch, zinc at thirty-eight tons, 
antimony at thirty-eight tons, aluminum at thirty-eight tons, 
bismuth at thirty-eight tons, and copper at thirty-three tons. 

176 





























Cost of Recent Wars. 

Crimean war . £340,000,000 

Italian war of 1859 . 60,000,000 

American civil war—North . 940,000,000 

“ “ “ —South. 460,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein war. 7,000,000 

Austrian and Prussian war, 1866 . . 66,000,000 

Expeditions to Mexico, Morocco, Paraguay, etc., 

(estimated). 40,000,000 

Franco-Prussian war. 500,000,000 

Russian and Turkish war, 1877. 210,000,000 

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879. 30,000,000 


£2,653,000,000 


This would allow $10 for every man, woman and child on the 
habitable globe. It would make two railways all around the world 
at $250,000 per mile each. These figures are furnished by the 
Peace Society, London. 

Losses from War in Twenty-Five Years (1855-80.) 

* Killed in battle, or died 

of wounds and disease. 


Crimean war. 750,000 

Italian war, 1859. 45,000 

War of Schleswig-Holstein . 3,000 

American civil war — the North. 280,000 

“ “ “ —the South . 520,000 

War between Prussia, Austria and Italy, 1866. 45,000 

Expeditions to Mexico, Cochin China, 

Morocco, Paraguay, etc. 65,000 

Franco-German war of 1870-71—France... 155,000 

“ “ “ “ “—Germany. 60,000 

*Russian and Turkish war of 1877. 225,000 

Zulu and Afghan wars, 1879. 40,000 

Total. 


. 2,188,000 

Length and Cost of American Wars. 

Wars. T ‘ i1 ' 

War of the revolution. . . 

Indian war in Ohio Ter. 

War with the Barbary St 


Tecumseh Indian war. 
War with Great Britain. 

Algerine war. 

First Seminole war. 

Black Hawk war. 

Second Seminole war. 


Length. 

7 years—1775-1782 $ 
1790 

1803-1804 

1811 

3 years—1812-1815 
1815 
1817 
1832 
18^3 


Cost. 

135,193,703 


107,159,003 


1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 

10. Mexican war. 2 years—1846-1848 66,000,000 

11. Mormon war. 1856 ^ • •• • • • • 

12. Civil war. 4 years—1861-1865 $6,500,000,000 

‘ ♦About thirty thousand skeletons of Russian and Turkish soldiers were shipped 
to England in 1881 , as manure, in the form of bones or bone dust. [177] 






































GREAT BATTLES OF HISTORT. 

The number placed kors-de-combat in battle are not relatively 
so large as formerly, as the table below will show: 



Men Engaged. 

Hors-de-combat. 


Ratio. 

Thrasymene. 

65,000 

17,000 

27 

per cent. 

Cannte. 

.. 146,000 

52,000 

34 

U 

Bannockburn . 

.. 135,000 

38,000 

28 

u 

Agincourt. 

62,000 

11,400 

18 

u 

Crecy. 

.. 117,000 

31,200 

27 

u 

Marengo. 

58,000 

13,000 

22 

u 

Xusterlitz. 

.. 170,000 

23,000 * 

13 

U 

Borodino. 

.. 250,000 

78,000 

31 

u 

Waterloo. 

.. 145,000 

51,000 

35 

u 

Alma. 

.. 103,000 

8,400 

8 

u 

Sadowa. 

.. 402,000 

33,000 

8 

u 

Gravelotte. 

.. 320,000 

48,500 

15 

u 

Gettysburg. 

.. 140,000 

8,000 

5 

u 


According to Napoleon, the proportions of an army should 
be 70 per cent, infantry, 17 per cent, cavalry, and 13 per cent, 
between artillery, engineers and train. 

The proportion of men capable of bearing arms is estimated 
at 25 per cent, of the population. 

At the close of the Franco-German war the Germans took 
from the French 7.234 pieces of cannon, including 3,485 field 
pieces and 3,300 fortress guns. At the battle of Waterloo the 
British artillery fired 9,467 rounds, or one for every Frenchman 
killed. 

The Decisive Battles of History. 

Actium, B.C. 31 . The combined fleets of Antony and Cleo¬ 
patra defeated by Octavius, and imperialism established in the 
person of Octavius. 

Philippi, B.C. 42 . Brutus and Cassius defeated by Octavius 
and Antony. The fate of the Republic decided. 

Metaurus, B.C. 207 . The Carthaginians, under Hasdrubul, 
were defeated by the Romans, under Caius and Marcus Livius. 

Arbela, B.C. 331 . The Persians defeated by the Macedonians 
and Greeks under Alexander the Great. End of the Persian 
empire. 

Syracuse, B.C. 414 . The Athenians defeated by the Syracu¬ 
sans and their allies, the Spartans, under Gylippus. 

Marathon, B.C. 490 . The Athenians, under Miltiades, de¬ 
feated the Persians untlgr Datis. Free government preserved. 

Winfeld-Lippe, A.D. 9 . Teutonic independence established 
by the defeat of the Roman legions under Varus at the hands of 
the Germans under Arminius (Hermann). 

Chalons, A.D. 451 . The Huns, under Attila, called the 

178 















DECISIVE BATTLES OF HISTORY. 


“ Scourge of God,” defeated by the confederate armies of 
Romans and Visigoths. 

Tours, A.D. 732. The Saracens defeated by Charles Martel 
and Christendom rescued from Islam. 

Hastings, A.D. 1066. Harold, commanding the English army, 
defeated by William the Conqueror, and a new regime established 
in England by the Normans. 

Siege of Orleans, A.D. 1429. The English defeated by the 
French under Joan of Arc. 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada, A.D. 1588. England saved 
from Spanish invasion. 

Lutzen, A.D 1632. Decided the religious liberties of Germany. 
Gustavus Adolphus killed. 

Blenheim, A.D. 1704. The French and Bavarians, under 
Marshal Tallard, defeated by the English and their allies, under 
Marlborough. 

Pultowa, A.D. 1709. Charles XII., of Sweden, defeated by 
the Russians under Peter the Great. 

Saratoga, A.D. 1777 . Critical battle of the American War of 
Independence. The English defeated by the Americans under 
Gen. Gates. 

Valmy, A.D. 1792. An invading army of Prussians, Aus¬ 
trians and Hessians, under the Duke of Brunswick, defeated by 
the French under Kellermann. The first success of the Republic 
against foreigners. 

Trafalgar. On the 21st of October, A.D. 1805, the great naval 
battle of Trafalgar was fought. The English defeated the French 
and destroyed Napoleon’s hopes to successfully invade England. 

Waterloo, A.D. 1815. The French, under Napoleon, defeated 
by the allied armies of Russia, Austria, Prussia and England, 
under Wellington. 

Siege of Sebastopol, A.D. 1854-5. The Russians succumbed 
to the beleaguering armies of England, France and Turkey, and 
the result was delay in the expansion of the Russian Empire. 

Gettysburg, July, A.D. 1863. The deciding battle of the war 
for the Union. The Confederates under Gen. Lee defeated by 
the Union forces under Meade. 

Sedan, A.D. 1870. The decisive battle of the Franco-German 
war. 

Slavery and Serfdom. 

Some of the wealthy Romans had as many as 10,000 slaves. 
The minimum price fixed by the law of Rome was $80, but after 
great victories they could sometimes be bought for a few shillings 
on the field of battle. The day’s wages of a Roman gardener 
were about 16 cents, and his value about $300, while a black- 

179 


SLA VERT AND SERFDOM. 


smith was valued at about $700, a cook at $2,000, an actress at 
$4,000, and a physician at $11,000. 

The number of slaves emancipated in the British Colonies in 
1834 was 780,993, the indemnity aggregating, in round figures, 
$100,000,000. In Brazil, in 1876, there were 1,510,800 slaves, 15 
per cent, of the entire population. These were held by 41,000 
owners, averaging 37 to each owner. In 1882 the number of 
slaves was 1,300,000. Owing to the gradual abolition of slavery 
in Brazil by law it is expected that it will be entirely obsolete in 


1900. 



, 


Slavery in tlie United States. 


Year. 

Number. 

Year. 

N umber. 

1790 . 

. 697,900 

1830 . 

. 2 , 009,030 

1800 . 

. 893,040 

1840 . 

. 2 , 487,500 

1810 . 

... ...... 1 , 191,400 

1850 . 

. 3 , 204,300 

1820 . 

. 1 , 538,100 

1860 . 

. 3 , 979,700 


Serfdom in Russia. 


There were 47,932,000 serfs in Russia in 1861, as follows : 
Crown serfs, 22,851,000; appanage, 3,326,000; held by nobles, 
21,755,000. The cost of redemption was, in round numbers, 
about $325,000,000, as follows : 

Mortgages remitted .$ 152 , 000,000 

Government scrip...’.. 101 , 000,000 

Paid by serfs. 52 , 000,000 

Balance due. 20 , 000,000 

The indemnity to the nobles was $15 per serf. The lands are 
mortgaged to the state till 1912. The lands ceded to Crown 
serfs are mortgaged only till 1901. The item of “mortgages 
remitted ” is the amount due by nobles to the Imperial Bank 
and canceled. 

Austrian Servitude (1840). 


Value. 

Labor (two days per week).$ 175 , 000,000 

Tithe of crops, etc. 60 , 000,000 

Male tribute, timber. 7 , 000,000 

Female tribute, spun wool. 9 , 000,000 

Fowl, eggs, butter. 5 , 000,000 


Total.$ 256 , 000,000 

There were 7,000,000 serfs, whose tribute averaged more than 
$35 per head, which was, in fact, the rent of their farms. Some 
Bohemian nobles had as many as 10,000 serfs. The redemption 
was effected by giving the nobles 5 per cent. Government scrip, 
and land then rose 50 per cent, in value. 

180 






















German Serfs. 

In 1848 the state took 60 , 000,000 acres from the nobles, leaving 
them still 25 , 000,000 acres, and gave the former among the serfs. 
Indemnity as follows: 1 . Government scrip, $900 for each serf 
family, to nobleman. 2 . Land tax, $15 per annum, transferred 
to peasant. 3 . Interest, $35 per annum for 47 years, to be paid 
by peasant to the state, being 4 per cent, on cost of redemption. 

Famous Giants and Dwarfs. 

The most noted giants of ancient and modern times are as 


follows: 

* 



Name. 

Place. 

Height, Feet. Period. 

Goliath. 

.Palestine... 

11.0 

B.C. 1063. 

Galbara . 

.Rome . ... 

9.9 

Claudius Caesar. 

John Middleton. . .. 

.England.... 

9.3 

A.D. 1578. 

Frederick’s Swede.. 

. Sweden .... 

8.4 

. 

Cujanus. . 

,. Finland .. . 

7.9 


Gilly. 

,. Tyrol. 

8.1 


Patrick Cotter. .. . 

.. Cork. 

8.7 

1806. 

Chang Gow.. 

..Pekin. 

7.8 

1880. 


Many of the great men of history have been rather small in 
stature. Napoleon was only about 5 ft. 4 in., Washington was 
5 ft. 7 in. One of the greatest of American statesmen, Alexander 
H. Stephens, never excelled 115 pounds in weight, and in his old 
age his weight was less than 100 pounds. 

The more notable human mites are named below: 


Name. Height, inches. Date of Birth. Place of Birth. 

Count Borowlaski . 39 1739 Warsaw. 

Tom Thumb(Chas. S. Stratton) 31 1837 New York. 

Mrs. Tom Thumb. 32 1842 “ 

Che-Mah . 25 1838 China. 

Lucia Zarate. 20 1863 Mexico. 

General Mite. 21 1864 New York. 


Evictions in Ireland. 

The total number of families evicted in Ireland for 33 years is 
482,000 as below: 


Years. Evicted. Re-admitted. Net Evictions. 

1849-51. 263,000 73,000 190,000 

1852-60. 110,000 28,000 82,000 

1861-70. 47,000 8,000 39,000 

1871-80 . 41,000 6,000 35,000 

1881-82 21,000 4,000 17,000 


Total.. 482,000 119,000 363,000 


The number of persons actually evicted was over two millions 
(say 70,000 per annum). 


181 


































Great Financial Panics. 

The most remarkable crises since the beginning of the present 
century have been as follows: 

1814. England, 240 banks suspended. 

1825. Manchester, failures 2 millions. 

1831. Calcutta, failures, 15 millions. 

1837. United States, “Wild-cat” crisis; all banks closed. 

1839. Bank of England saved by Bank of France. Severe also 
in France, where 93 companies failed for 6 millions. 

1844. England. State loans to merchants. Bank of England 
reformed. 

1847. England, failures 20 millions; discount 13 per cent. 

1857. United States, 7,200 houses failed for 111 millions. 

1866. London, Overend-Gurney crisis; failures exceeded 100 
millions. 

1869. Black Friday in New York (Wall street), September 24. 

Excessive Heat in the Past. 

In 1303 and 1304 the Rhine, Loire and Seine ran dry. The 
heat in several French provinces during the summer of 1705 was 
equal to that of a glass furnace. Meat could be cooked by 
merely exposing it to the sun. Not a soul dare venture out be¬ 
tween noon and 4 p. m. In 1718 many shops had to close. The 
theaters never opened their doors for three months. Not a drop 
of water fell during six months. In 1773 the thermometer rose 
to 118 degrees. In 1778 the heat of Bologna was so great that a 
great number of people were stifled. There was not sufficient air 
for the breath, and people had to take refuge under the ground. 
In July, 1793, the heat again became intolerable. Vegetables 
were burned up, and fruit dried on the trees. The furniture and 
wood-work in dwelling-houses cracked and split up; meat went 
bad in an hour. 

Summer Heat in Various Countries. 

The following figures show the extreme summer heat in the 
various countries of the world : Bengal and the African desert, 
150 0 Fahrenheit; Senegal and Guadaloupe, 130 0 ; Persia, 125 0 ; 
Calcutta and Central America, 120 0 ; Afghanistan and the Ara¬ 
bian desert, no°; Cape of Good Hope and Utah, 105 0 ; Greece, 
104 0 ; Arabia, 103 0 ; Montreal, 103 0 ; New York, 102 0 ; Spain, 
India, China, Jamaica, ioo°; Sierra Leone, 94 0 ; France, Den¬ 
mark, St. Petersburg, Shanghai, the Burman Empire, Buenos 
Ayres, and the Sandwich Islands, 90 0 ; Great Britain, Siam, and 
Peru, 85°; Portugal, Pekin and Natal, 8o°; Siberia, 77 0 ; Aus¬ 
tralia and Scotland, 75 0 ; Italy, Venezuela and Madeira, 73 0 ; 
Prussia and New Zealand, 70 0 ; Switzerland and Hungary, 66°; 
Bavaria, Sweden, Tasmania and Moscow, 65°; Patagonia and 
the Falkland Isles, 55 0 ; Iceland, 45 0 ; Nova Zembla, 34 0 . 

182 


Severest Cold on Record. 

1234. Mediterranean frozen; traffic with carts. 

1420. Bosphorus frozen. 

1468. Wine at Antwerp sold in blocks. 

1658. Swedish artillery crossed the Sound. 

1766. Snow knee-deep at Naples. 

1789. Fahrenheit thermometer marked 23 0 below zero at Frank¬ 
fort, and 36° below at Basle. 

1809. Moscow, 48° below zero, greatest cold recorded there; 
mercury frozen. 

1829. Jakoutsk, Siberia, 73 0 below zero on the 25th of January ; 
greatest cold on record. 

1846. December marked 25 0 below zero at Pontarlier; lowest 
ever marked in France. 

1864. January, Fahrenheit stood at zero in Turin ; greatest cold 
recorded in Italy. 

Captain Parry, in his Arctic explorations, suffered for some 
time 51 degrees below zero. Frost is diminishing in Canada with 
the increase of population, as shown by the fact that Hudson’s 
Bay was closed, from i 828-’37, 184 days per annum, and from 
i87i-’8o only 179 days per annum. 

The Great Famines of History. 

Walford mentions 160 famines since the nth century, namely: 
England, 57; Ireland 34; Scotland, 12; France, 10; Germany, 
11; Italy, etc., 36. The worst in modern times have been: 


Country. Date. No. of Victims. 

France. 1770 48,000 

Ireland. 1847 1 , 029,000 

India. 1866 1 , 450,000 


Deaths from hunger and want were recorded as follows in 
1879, according to Mulhall: Ireland, 3,789! England, 312; Lon¬ 
don, 101; France, 260. The proportion per 1,000 deaths was, re¬ 
spectively, 37.6, .6, 1.2, .3. 

Remarkable Plagues of Modern Times. 


Date. 

Place. 

Deaths. 

Weeks. 

Deaths per Week. 

1656 .. 

. .Naples. 

.. . 380,000 

28 

10,400 

1665 .. 

.. London.. .. . 

... 68,800 

33 

2,100 

1720 .. 

.. Marseilles. 

... 39,100 

36 

1,100 

1771 .. 

..Moscow . 

... 87,800 

32 

2,700 

1778 .. 

. .Constantinople . .. 

... 170,000 

18 

9,500 

1798 .. 

. .Cairo .. . 

... 88,000 

25 

3,500 

1812 .. 

. .Constantinople ... 

... 144,000 

13 

11,100 

1834 .. 

. .Cairo. 

... 57,000 

18 

3,200 

1835 .. 

. . Alexandria. 

... 14,900 

17 

900 

1871 .. 

. .Buenos Ayres.... 

... 26,300 

11 

2,400 


183 















Height of Noted Cathedrals, Monuments, etc. 


Feet. 


Feet 


Eiffel Tower, Paris.989 

Washington Monument.555 

Pyramid, Cheops, Egypt. .. .543 

Cathedral, Cologne .511 

“ Antwerp.476 

“ Strasburg.474 

Tower, Utrecht.464 


Steeple, St. Stephen’s, Vienna 460 
Pyramid, Khafras, Egypt. ...456 
St. Martin’s Church, Bavaria.456 
Chimney, Port Dundas, Glas¬ 


gow .. ,. .454 

St. Peter’s, Rome .448 

Notre Dame, Amiens.422 

Salisbury Spire, England... 406 

Cathedral, Florence.380 

“ Cremona.372 

“ Freiburg.367 

St. Paul’s, London .365 

Cathedral, Seville.360 

Pyramid, Sakkarah, Egypt. .356 

Cathedral, Milan ..355 

Notre Dame, Munich.348 

Invalides, Paris .347 

Parliament House, London. .340 

Cathedral, Magdeburg.337 

St. Patrick’s, New York... .328 
St. Mark’s, Venice.328 


Cathedral, Bologna.321 

“ Norwich, Eng. . .309 
“ Chichester, Eng.300 
“ Lincoln, Eng...300 

Capitol, Washington .300 

St.James’Cathedral,Toronto.316 
Trinity Church, New York.283 

Cathedral, Mexico. . ..280 

“ Montreal.280 

Campanile Tower, Florence. 276 

Column, Delhi .260 

Cathedral, Dantzic.250 

Porcelain Tower, Nankin..248 
Custom House, St. Louis. . .240 
Canterbury Tower, Engl’d.235 

Notre Dame, Paris.232 

Chicago Board of Trade.... 230 

St. Patrick’s, Dublin ..226 

Cathedral, Glasgow.225 

Bunker Hill Monument.. . .220 

Notre Dame, Montreal.220 

Cathedral, Lima.220 

“ Rheims . .220 

“ Garden City,L. 1.219 
St. Peter and Paul, Phila.... 210 
Washington Mon., Balto. . .210 
Vendome Column, Paris. . .153 


Principal of the Public Debt. 


1855 July 1 

. 35,586,858 

56 

1872 July 1... 

$2,253,251,328 78 

1856 

44 

31,972,537 

90 

1873 

it 

. 2,234,482,993 20 

1857 

u 

28,699,831 

85 

1874 

it 

. 2,251,690,468 43 

1858 

44 

44,911,881 

03 

1875 

it 

. 2,232,284,531 95 

1859 

it 

58,496,837 

88 

1876 

it 

. 2,180,395,067 15 

1860 

u 

64,842,287 

88 

1877 

it 

. 2,205,301,392 10 

1861 

it 

90,580,873 

72 

1878 

it 

. 2,256,203,892 53 

1862 

tt 

.... 524,176,412 

13 

1879 

it 

. 2,245,495,072 04 

1863 

a 

.... 1,119,772,138 

63 

1880 

it . 

. 2,120,415.370 63 

1864 

tt 

....1,815,784,370 

57 

1881 

U 

. 2,069,013,569 58 

1865 

tt 

.... 2,680,647,869 

74 

1882 

tt 

. 1,918,312,994 03 

1866 

it 

.... 2,773,236,173 

69 

1883 

tt 

. 1,884,171,728 07 

1867 

tt 

.... 2,678,126,103 

87 

1884 

tt 

. 1,830,528,923 57 

1868 

tt 

.... 2,611,687,851 

19 

1885 

it 

. 1,876,424,275 14 

1869 

tt 

.... 2,588,452,213 

94 

1886 

tt 

. 1,756,445,205 78 

1870 

tt 

.... 2,480,672,427 

81 

1887: 

Dec.l... 

. 1,664,461,536 38 

1871 

tt 

.... 2,353,211,332 

32 

1888 

44 

. 1,680,917,706 23 




184 











































Religion in America, 



Churches. 

Ministers. 

Communi¬ 

cants. 

Adventists.... 

1,344 

775 

91,769 

Baptists. 

37,156 

26,545 

3,336,553 

Congregationalists. 

3,936 

8,723 

387,619 

Friends. 

392 

200 

96,000 

German Evangelical Church 

550 

430 

80,000 

Lutherans. 

6,130 

3,429 

785,987 

Methodists. 

41,271 

24,485 

3,943,875 

Mennonites . 

500 

450 

80,000 

Moravians. .. 

84 

70 

9,928 

New Jerusalem. 

87 

92 

3,994 

Presbvterians .... 

11,783 

8,834 

966,437 

Protestant Episcopal. . 

3,109 

3,664 

351,699 

Reformed. 

1,942 

1,320 

243,825 

Roman Catholics. 

Schwendfeldians. 

6,241 

6,546 

6,832,954 

700 

Unitarians. 

362 

434 

20,000 

Universalists. 

719 

713 

36,238 

Total in United States. 

115,610 

81,717 

17,267,878 


Indian Country. 

The entire extent of territory now in a state of reservation 
for Indian purposes, including all portions of the Indian Terri¬ 
tory, whether in fact occupied or unoccupied by Indians, is 112 ,- 
413,440 acres, being equivalent to an average of 456 acres for 
each Indian, computed on the last reported number of the total 
population, including those estimated as outside the reservations. 
Of this area about 81 , 020,129 acres are within the scope of the 
general allotment law of 1887 , and afford an average for the 
population residing upon such lands, amounting to 173 , 985 , of 
about 465 acres to each. It will be seen that, by the execution 
of the general allotment law and breaking up of the reservations, 
a wide area of the public domain will be opened to settlement. 

The Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and Semi- 
noles, constituting the five civilized tribes; the Osages, Miamis, 
Peorias, and Sacs and Foxes of the Indian territory, and the 
Seneca nation in New York are excepted from the provisions of 
the allotment act. The territory occupied by them embraces 
21 , 969,695 acres, not counting therewith the 6 , 024,239 acres of 
the Cherokee outlet, the 1 , 887,801 acres known as Oklahoma, 
and the 1 , 511,576 acres lying in the Indian territory south of the 
north fork of the Red river. The number of these excepted 
Indians is shown by the reports to be 72,110 in all. 
































Land Monopoly. 

The following is a table of the leading alien holders of lands 
in the United States, with amount of holdings in acres : 

An English syndicate, No. 3 , in Texas. 3,000,000 

The Holland Land Co., New Mexico. 4,500,000 

Sir Edw. Reid and a syndicate, Florida. 2,000,000 

English syndicate in Mississippi. 1,800,000 

Marquis of Tweedale. 1,750,000 

Phillips, Marshall & Co., London. 1,300,000 

German-American syndicate, London. 750,000 

Bryan H. Evans, of London. 700,000 

Duke of Sutherland. 425,000 

British Land Company in Kansas. 320,000 

Wm. Wharley, M. P., Peterboro, Eng.- 310,000 

Missouri Land Co., Edinburgh, Scotland.. 300,000 

Robert Tennent, of London. 230,000 

Dundee Land Co., Scotland. . 247,000 

Lord Dunmore. 120,000 

Benjamin Neugas, Liverpool. 100,000 

Lord Houghton in Florida. 60,000 

Lord Dunraven in Colorado. 60,000 

English Land Company in Florida . 50,000 

English Land Company in Arkansas. 50,000 

Albert Peel, M. P., Leicestershire, Eng. 10,010 

Sir J. L. Kay, Yorkshire, Eng. 5,000 

Alexander Grant, of London, in Kans. 35,000 

English syndicate, Wisconsin. 110,000 

M. Ellerhauser, of Halifax, in W. Va. 600,000 

A Scotch syndicate in Florida . 500,000 

A. Boysen, Danish consul in Milwaukee. 50,000 

Missouri Land Company, of Edinburgh. 165,000 


Total. % .20,647,000 

To these syndicate holdings should be added the following: 
The Arkansas Valley Company in Colorado,a foreign corporation, 
whose inclosures embrace upward of 1 , 000,000 acres; the Prairie 
Cattle Company (Scotch) in Colorado, upwards of 1 , 000 , 000 ; 
H. H. Metcalf, River Bend, Col., 200 , 000 ; John W. Powers, 
Colorado, 200 , 000 ; McDaniel & Davis, Colorado, 75 , 000 ; Routch- 
ler & Lamb, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; J. W. Frank, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; 
Garnett & Langford, Colorado, 30 , 000 ; E. C. Tane, Colorado, 
50 , 000 ; Leivesy Brothers, Colorado, 150 , 000 ; Vrooman & McFife, 
Colorado, 50 , 000 ; Beatty Brothers, Colorado, 40 , 000 ; Chick, 
Brown & Co., Colorado, 30 , 000 ; Reynolds Cattle Company, 
Colorado, 50 , 000 ; several other cases in Colorado, embracing 
from 10,000 to 30 , 000 ; Coe & Carter, Nebraska, fifty miles of 
fence; J. W. Wilson, Nebraska, forty miles; J. W. Boster, twenty 
miles; William Humphrey, Nevada, thirty miles; Nelson & Son, 
Nevada, twenty-two miles; Kennebec Ranch, Nebraska, from 
20,000 to 50,000 acres. 186 
































The American Indian. 

The total Indian population of the United States in 1887 , 
exclusive of Alaska, was 247 , 761 . 

The Indian reservations in 1886 amounted to 135 , 978,345 acres, 
or 212,466 square miles approximately. 

The popular idea that there was originally a large Indian 
population in the territory now covered by the United States, 
and that the numbers have decreased with each succeeding gene¬ 
ration, as it came in contact with the fire-arms and fire-water of 
the white man’s civilization, is probably erroneous. There are 
no statistics available, but careful observation and comparison 
has induced such students of Indian history as Mr. J. P. Dunn, 
Jr., to fix the Indian population of our present Territory, at the 
time of European colonization, at 530,000 approximately, and 
Mr. Elbridge S. Brooks, the latest writer upon the Indians, 
materially modifies those figures, expressing the opinion that in 
1600 there were not over half a million of Indians between the 
shores of the Gulf of Mexico and the Arctic Ocean, and, in 
fact, that the Indian population of today is substantially the 
same in volume that it was when Columbus discovered America, 
or Leif Ericson either. 

Illiteracy. 

The last census enumerates 36 , 761,607 persons of ten years of 
age and upward. Of this number 4 , 923 , 451 , or 13.4 per cent., are 
returned as unable to read, and 6 , 239 , 958 , or 17 per cent., as 
unable to write. The following States show over 40 per cent, 
of their population as unable to write: Alabama, 60 ; Florida, 43 ; 
Georgia, 50 ; Louisiana, 49 ; Mississippi, 50 ; New Mexico, 65 ; 
North Carolina, 48 ; South Carolina, 55 ; and Virginia, 41 , and 
the following States with less than 5 per cent, unable to read: 
Connecticut, 4 ; Dakota, 3 ; Illinois, 4 ; Indiana, 5 ; Iowa, 2 ; 
Kansas, 4 ; Maine, 4 ; Michigan, 4 ; Minnesota, 4 ; Montana, 5 ; 
Nebraska, New Hampshire, 4 ; New Jersey, 5 ; New York, 
4 ; Ohio, 4 ; Oregon, 4 ; Pennsylvania, 5 ; Utah, 5 ; Virginia, 5 , and 
Wisconsin, 4 . 


Average of Import Duties in Various Countries. 


Ratio to 
Imports. 
Per Cent. 


Ratio to 
Imports. 
Per Cent. 


United Kingdom. 

France. 

Germany. 

Russia. 

Austria. 

Italy. 

Spain... 

Portugal. 

Holland. 


W 

6 

18 

5 

11 

24 

26 

1 


Belgium. 

Denmark. 

Sweden and Norway. 

Europe. 

United States. 

Canada. 

Australia. 

Brazil. 

Argentine Republic.. 


IK 

9 

12 

28 

15 

13 

44 

37 


187 


















Organized Labor in the United States. 

The first strike in this country occurred in New York City in 
1803 , when a number of sailors struck for an advance of wages. 

1806 . The tailors this year established the first organization in 
the United States, in the present form of a trades union. 

1819 . The hatters organized a union of their craft. 

1825 - 30 . The Columbia Charitable Association of Shipwrights 
and Caulkers was organized. 

1825 . As early as this year the questions of shorter hours of 
work, better wages and protection of operatives in factories were 
being agitated, and during the years that immediately followed, 
social unions of different crafts were springing up in cities and 
manufacturing centers. 

1828 . The Workingmen’s Party, a local political organization 
in New York, Boston, Philadelphia and other cities, appeared. 

1829 . At the State election in New York a workingmen’s 
ticket was put in the field, and elected one candidate to the 
Legislature—Ebenezer Ford, of New York. 

1831 . First local unions of printers. 

1831 . The New England Association of Farmers, Mechanics 
and Workingmen formed. 

1832 . Ten-hour movement among the shipwrights and caulk¬ 
ers throughout New England cities was followed by strikes, 
which proved unsuccessful. 

1834 . A mechanics’convention met at Utica, N. Y., and pro¬ 
tested against convict labor. 

1835 . From this year onward strikes occurred in the different 
trades from time to time, with varying results. 

1840 . About this time many trades were organized, and some 
were enrolled in Labor Reform associations. 

1840 . President Van Buren established the ten-hour system 
for all employes of the Government in the Navy Yards. 

1844 - 45 . First 'effort of co-operation in connection with the 
labor movement originated in Boston. 

1845 . The New England Workingmen’s Association was or¬ 
ganized in Boston. 

1845 , October 12 . The first Industrial Congress of the United 
States convened in New York. 

1847 . New Hampshire passed a law making ten hours a legal 
day’s work. 

1850 . The labor agitation at this period was principally 
directed to a reduction in hours of work by legal enactment. It 
entered into politics and many candidates were run on that 
issue. 

1850 - 60 . National and international trades unions were organ¬ 
ized, granting charters tp local bodies and organizing new 
branches, from Maine to California. 

1861 - 65 . The eight-hour movement obtained great impetus 
during the war. jgo 


HISTORT OF ORGANIZED LABOR. 


1866 . There was a revival of the labor movement, and many 
new organizations were formed. 

1864 . The Cigarmakers’ International Union was formed. 

1866 . An eight-hour bill for the benefit of Government em¬ 
ployes was introduced in Congress, and finally became a law in 
1868 by the signature of President Johnson. 

1866 . First National Labor Congress met at Baltimore, August 
20 . This body met annually in different cities for several years. 

1869 . The Knights of Labor were organized in Philadelphia. 

The labor movement from 1870 to the present time has been a 
continuous growth in the number of trades unions and increase 
in their membership, attended by strikes, lock-outs and settle¬ 
ments by arbitration, the agitation for labor legislation and 
efforts at political party organization. Congress created a 
National Bureau of Labor in 1884 . 

Most of the trades unions organizations in the United States 
were represented at a convention held at Columbus, O., in 
December, 1886 , when a national organization was formed, a 
constitution adopted and the title taken of The American 
Federation of Labor. This body and the Order of Knights of 
Labor of America (which is a secret order) are the two principal 
national labor organizations of the United States. 


The total number of newspapers published in the world at 
present is estimated at about 40 , 000 , distributed as follows; 
United States, 15 , 000 ; Germany, 5 , 500 ; Great Britain, 5 , 000 , 
France, 4 , 092 ; Japan, 2 , 000 ; Italy, 1 , 400 ; Austria-Hungary, 
1 , 200 ; Asia, exclusive of Japan, 1 , 000 ; Spain, 850 ; Russia, 800 ; 
Australia, 700 ; Greece, 600 ; Switzerland, 450 ; Holland, 300 ; 
Belgium, 300 ; all others, 1 , 000 . Of these about half are printed 
in the English language. _ 

Coal in the United States. —This country has an area 
of between 300,000 and 400,000 square miles of known coal fields, 
from which 100,000 tons is mined yearly—enough to belt the 
earth at the equator with a ring five and a half feet thick by five 
and a half feet wide. The quantity “in sight” is estimated to be 
sufficient to supply the whole world for a period of fifteen 
hundred to two thousand years. 


Roman money mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to 
English and American standard : 

£ s. d. far. $ cts. 

Amite . 0 0 0 0.75 0 00.354 

A farthing, about . 0 0 (f 1.50 0 00 687 

A penny, or denarius. 0 0 7 2. 0 13.75 

A pound, or mina .. 3 2 6 0. 13 75. 

189 








PARLIAMENTARY LAW 


250 POINTS OF ORDER DECIDED AT A GLANCE. 


AUTHORITY OF JUDGE ROBERT, THE GREAT PARLIAMENTARIAN. 


Motion to adjourn, ----- 

- 

1 

a 

M 

B 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to determine time to which to adjourn. 

- 

M 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to amend, ----- 

- 

3 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to amend an amendment, - - - 

- 

3 

a 

M 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to amend the rules, ... 

- 

3 

a 

N 

A 

b 

0 

y 

Motion to appeal from Chair’s decision re indecorum, 

1 

a 

N 

A 

a 

' 0 

y 

Motion to appeal from Chair’s decision generally. 

- 

3 

a 

M 

A 

a 

0 

p 

Call to order, - ' - 


1 

a 

M 

A 

a 

00 

X 

Motion to close debate on question. 

- 

1 

a 

N 

A 

b 

0 

X 

Motion to commit, - - 

- 

3 

b 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to extend limits of debate on question. 

- 

1 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Leave to continue speaking after indecorum, 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to lay on the table, - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

C 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to limit debate on question. 

- 

1 

a 

N 

A 

b 

0 

X 

Objection to consideration of question, 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

b 

00 

y 

Motion for the orders of the day, - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

a 

00 

y 

Motion to postpone to a definite time. 

- 

4 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to postpone indefinitely, - - - 

- 

3 

b 

M 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion for previous question, - - - 

- 

l 

a 

M 

A 

b 

0 

X 

Questions touching priority of business, 

- 

1 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Questions of privilege, ----- 

- 

3 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Reading papers, ------ 

Motion to reconsider a debatable question, 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

a 

0 

X 

- 

3 

b 

M 

B 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to reconsider an undebatable question, 

- 

1 

a 

M 

B 

a 

0 

z 

Motion to refer a question, - 

- 

3 

b 

N 

B 

a 

0 

X 

Motion that committee do not rise, - - - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

B 

a 

0 

X 

Question whether subject shall be discussed, - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

b 

00 

y 

Motion to make subject a special order. 

- 

3 

a 

N 

A 

b 

0 

X 

To substitute in the nature of an amendment. 

- 

3 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to suspend the rules, - - - - 

- 

3 

a 

N 

B 

a 

0 

X 

Motion to take from the table, - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

C 

b 

0 

X 

To take up a question out of its proper order, - 

- 

1 

a 

M 

A 

b 

0 

X 

Motion to withdraw a motion, - - - 

- 

1 

a 

N 

A 

a 

0 

X 

Questions of precedence of questions. 

- 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

1 

12 

Forms in which questions may be put, - - - 13 14 15 

1 . Questions undebatable, sometimes remarks tacitly allowed. 

16 

17 

18 

19 


2. Undebatable, if another question is before the assembly. 

3. Debatable question. 

4. Limited debate only on propriety of postponement. 

a. Does not allow reference to main question. 

b. Opens the main question to debate. 

M. Cannot be amended. 

N. May be amended. 

A. Can be reconsidered. 

B. Cannot be reconsidered. 

C. An affirmative vote on this question cannot be reconsidered. 

b. Requires two-third vote unless special rules have been enacted. 
a. Simple majority suffices to determine the question. 

0. Motion must be seconded. 

00. Does not require to be seconded. 

x. Not in order when another,may have the floor. 

y. Always in order though another has the floor. 

z. May be moved and entered on the record when another has the floor, but the 
business then before the assembly may not be put aside. The motion must be made 

190 






PA XLIAMENTART LA IV. 

by one who voted with the prevailing side, and on the same day the original vote 
wss taKen. 

5. Fixing the time to which an adjournment may be made ; ranks first. 

6 . To adjourn without limitation ; second. 

7. Motion for the orders of the day , third. 

8 . Motion to lay on the table ; fourth. 

9. Motion for the previous question ; fifth. 

10. Motion to postpone definitely ; sixth. 

11. Motion to commit; seventh. 

12. Motion to amend ; eighth. 

13. Motion to postpone indefinitely ' ninth. 

14. On motion to strike out the words, “Shall the words stand part of the mo¬ 
tion?” unless a majority sustains the words, they are struck out. 

15. On motion for previous question, the form to be observed is, “Shall the main 
question be now put?” This, if carried, ends debate. 

16. On an appeal from the Chair’s decision, “ Shall the decision be sustained as 
the ruling of the house?” The Chair is generally sustained. 

17. On motion for orders of the day, “Will the house now proceed to the orders 
of the day?” This, if carried, supersedes intervening motion. 

18. When an objection is raised to considering questions, “Shall the question be 
considered?” objections may be made by any member before debate has com¬ 
menced, but not subsequently. 


Letter Combinations.— When King Stanislaus of Poland, 

then a young man, came back from a journey, the whole Lescinskian House 
gathered together at Lissa to receive him. The schoolmaster, Jablowsky, prepared 
a festival in commemoration of the event, and had it end with a ballet performed by 
thirteen students, dressed as cavaliers. Each had a shield, upon which one of the 
letters of the words “ Domus Lescinia” (The Lescinskian House) was written in 
gold. After the first dance, they stood in such a manner that their shields read 
“Domus Lescinia ;” after the second dance, they changed order, making it read, 
“ Ades incolutnis” (Unharmed art thou here); after the third, “ Mane sidus loci” 
(Continue the star of this place); after the fourth, “Sis colwnna Dei” (Be a pillar 
of God); and finally, “// scande solium!” (Go! ascend the throne). Indeed, 
these two words allow of 1,556,755,200 transpositions ; yet that four of them convey 
independent and appropriate meanings is certainly very curious. 

To Tell Pure Water.— The color, odor, taste and purity 
of water can be ascertained as follows: Fill a large bottle made of colorless glass 
with water; look through the water at some black object. Pour out some of the 
water and leave the bottle half full; cork the bottle and place it for a few hours in a 
warm place ; shake up the water, remove the cork, and critically smell the air con¬ 
tained in the bottle. If it has any smell, particularly if the odor is repulsive, the 
water should not be used for domestic purposes. By heating the water an odor is 
evolved that would not otherwise appear. Water fresh from the well is usually 
tasteless, even if it contains a large amount of putrescible organic matter. All water 
for domestic purposes should be perfectly tasteless, and remain so even after it has 
been warmed, since warming often develops a taste in water which is tasteless when 
cold. 

Hand Grenades.— Take chloride of calcium, crude, 20 parts ; 

common salt, 5 parts ; and water, 75 parts. Mix and put in thin bottles. In case of 
fire, a bottle so thrown that it will break in or very near the fire will put it out. This 
mixture is better and cheaper than many of the high-priced grenades sold for the 
purpose of fire protection. 

How to Get Rid of Rats.— Get a piece of lead pipe and use 

it as a funnel to introduce about 1 ounces of sulphide of potassium into any outside 
holes tenanted by rats, not to be used in dwellings. To get rid of mice use tartar 
emetic mingled with any favorite food; they will eat, sicken and take their leave. 

191 



Great Fires and Conflagrations. 

London, Sept. 2 - 6 , 1666 .—Eighty-nine churches, many public 

buildings and 13,200 houses destroyed; 400 streets laid waste; 200,000 persons home¬ 
less. The ruins covered 436 acres. 

New York, Dec. 16 , 1835.—600 buildings; loss, $ 20 , 000 , 000 . 

Sept. 6 , 1839 .—$ 10 , 000,000 worth of property. 

Pittsburgh, April 10 , 1845 .— 1,000 buildings; loss, $ 6 , 000 , 000 . 
Philadelphia, July 9 , 1850.—350 buildings; loss, $ 1 , 500 , 000 ; 25 

persons killed; 9 drowned; 120 wounded. 

St. Louis, May 4 , 1851 .—Large portion of the city burned; 

loss, $ 15 , 000 , 000 . 

San Francisco, May 3 - 5 , 1851 — 2,500 buildings; loss, $ 3 , 500 ,- 

000 ; many lives lost. June 22 , 1851.—500 buildings; loss, $ 3 , 000 , 000 . 

Santiago (Spain), Dec. 8 , 1863 .—A fire in the church of 
the Campania, beginning amid combustible ornaments; 2,000 persons killed, 
mostly women. 

Charleston, S. C., Feb. 17 , 1 S 65 .—Almost totally destroyed, 

with large quantities of naval and military stores. 

Richmond, Va., April 2 and 3 , 1865 .—In great part destroyed 
by fire at time of Confederate evacuation. 

Portland, Me., July 4 , 1866 .—Almost entirely ddltroyed; loss, 

$ 15 , 000 , 000 . 

Chicago, Oct. 8 and 9 , 1871 .— 3)4 square miles laid waste; 

17,450 buildings destroyed; 200 persons killed; 98,500 made homeless. July 14 , 
1874 .—Another great fire; loss, $ 4 , 000 , 000 . 

Great forest fires in Michigan and Wisconsin, October 8 - 14 , 
1871 .— 2,000 lives lost. 

Boston, Nov. 9 - 11 , 1872.—800 buildings; loss, $ 73 , 000 , 000 ; 15 
killed. 

Fall River, Mass., Sept. 19 , 1874 .—Great factory fires; 60 per¬ 
sons killed. 

St.John, N. B., June 21 , 1876 .—Loss, $ 12 , 500 , 000 . 

Brooklyn Theater burned, Dec. 5 , 1876.—300 lives lost. 

Seattle and Spokane, Wash., 1 S 89 .—About $ 10 , 000,000 each. 

Great Floods and Inundations. 

An inundation in Cheshire, England, A.D. 353 .— 3,000 per¬ 
sons perished. 

Glasgow, A.D. 758 .—More than 400 families drowned. 

Dort, April 17 , 1421.—72 villages submerged; 100,000 people 

drowned. 

Overflow of the Severn, A.D. 1483 , lasting ten days.—Men, 
women and children carried away in their beds, and the waters covered the tops ot 
many mountains. 

General inundation in Holland, A.D. 1530 .—By failureof dikes; 

400,000 said to have been drowned. 

At Catalonia, A.D. 1617 .— 50,000 drowned. 

Johnstown, Pa., May 31 , 1889 .—By the bursting of a huge 
reservoir on the mountains, the town was almost entirely destroyed, and about 6 ,ooo 
persons perished. The water in its passage to Johnstown descended about 250 feet. 
The theoretical velocity due to this descent would be about 127 feet per second or be¬ 
tween 86 and 87 miles an hour. According to the best accounts from 15 to 17 minutes 
were occupied in the passage to Johnstown, a distance of about twelve miles. 
Thus the average velocity could not have been far short of 50 miles an hour. The 
impetus of such a mass of water was irresistible. As the flood burst through the 
dam it cut trees away as if they were stalks of mullein. 

192 


a> THE WORLD’S HISTORY AT A GLANCE. 

Compact Diagrams Suggesting Dates, Names and Events. 
Designed to Aid the Memory and for 

Ready Reference. 

B. C. 

1900 

FROM ABRAHAM TO CYRUS. 

ASSYRIA. 

CHALDEA. 

BABYLONIA. 

HEBREWS. 

96 . Abraham born. 

21 . Call of Abraham. 

EGYPT. 

1800 

50 . Ismi-Dagon. 


22 . Egyptian alpha¬ 
bet invented. 

1700 


6 . Jacob removes in¬ 
to Egypt. 

Rameses, king. 

1600 



18 . Sesostris. 

1500 

Arabians subdue 
Chaldaea. 

71 . Moses born. 


1400 


91 . Exodus from 
Egypt. 

51 . He nrews enter 
Canaan. 


1300 


45 . Gideon conquers 
the Midianites. 

8 . Sethos. 

1200 

Semiramis. 


1100 

co. Nebuchadnez¬ 
zar I. 

30 . Tigleth-Pileserl. 

36 . Samson defeats 
the Philistines. 


1000 


95 . Saul, king. 

55 . David, king. 

15 . Solomon, king. 

82 . Cheops builds 
the great Pyra¬ 
mid. 

900 

* 

90 . Queen 0 f Sheba 
visits Solomon. 

75 . Death of Solomon. 

Two kingdoms 
formed —Judah 
and Israel. 

78 . Shishak. 

71 . Shishak invades 
Judah; plunders 
the Temple. 

800 

75 . Sardanapalus. 

70 . Assy rians con¬ 
quer Phoenicia. 

92 . Syrians besiege 
Samaria. 


















(II.) 


700 


600 


600 


400 


47 - Nabonassar. 

28. Shalmaneser. 

23. Invades 

Phoenicia. 

17. Sennacherib. 

9. Asarhadon. 

26. Nabopolasser. 

5. Nebuchadnezzar 
the Great. 


87. Nebuchadnezzar 
invades Phoe¬ 
nicia. 


71. Assyrians invade 
Israel. 

21. The ten tribescar- 
ried into captiv¬ 
ity. 

10. Sennache r ib’s 
army of 185,000 
destroyed in one 
night in Judea. 


5. Nebuchadnezzar 
invades Judea. 


S7. J e r u s a 1 e m de¬ 
stroyed. Jews 
1 e d away into 
captivity 


55. Belshazzar. 

38. Cyrus the Mede, king of Persia, takes 
Babylon. 

36. Jews returned to Jerusalem. 

29. Death of Cyrus. 


11. Invaded by Sen¬ 
nacherib. 



11. Nechao II. loses 
120,000 men try¬ 
ing to cut a ca- 

H nal from the 
Nile to Red Sea, 


44. Apries king. 

72. Assyrians devas¬ 
tate Egypt. 

35. Egypt submits to 
Cyrus. 


FROM CYRUS TO ALEXANDER. 


PERSIA. 

21. Darius I. 


94. 

85 - 

79 - 

65. 


Darius in¬ 
vades 
Greece. 
X e r xes in¬ 
vades 
Greece. 
Persians re¬ 
treat home. 
Artaxerxes I 
Battle of Cu- 
naxa; Cy¬ 
rus the 
Younger 
slain. 


GREECE. 

. Sardis 
burnt by 
the Greeks. 


90 


Milt i a d e s 
defeats the 
Persians at 
Marathon. 

80. Battles of 
Thermo- 
p y 1 ?c and 
Salamis. 
Battles of 
Mycale and 
Pfataea. 
Peloponne¬ 
sian war. 
Athens in¬ 
vades Sic¬ 
ily. 


79 


MACEDON. 

8. Subdued by 
Darius. 


9 i 


ROME. 

10. Th e Tar- 
quins van¬ 
quished. 

Republic. 

Cori olanus 
vanquished. 
89. Besieges 

Rome. 
8S. Reti res at 
his mother’s 
suit. 

58. Cincinnatus, 
dictator. 

Vir giniu s 
kills his 
daughter to 
save her 
honor. 


49 





















(III.) 


94. Persians aid 
Atheni a n s 
in battle of 
Cnidus. 


36. Darius III. 
Codomanus. 


34. Persia in¬ 
vade d by 
Alexander. 
Battle of 
Granicus. 


95. Corinthian 
war. 

87. Peace 
among 
Greeks. 


78. 


T h e b an 
war. 

Epaminon - 
das, The¬ 
ban Gen¬ 
eral. 


39. War btwn 
Athens 
and Ma- 
cedon. 

35. Greeks con¬ 
quered by 
Ale x a n - 
der. 


98. Amyntas. 


58. Philip II. 

38. Defeat of 
A theni- 
a n s and 
Thebans 
at Cher- 
onea. 

36. Alexander. 


33. Battle of Issus. 
Conquest of Syria. 
Conquest of Egypt. 
Siege of Tyre. 


31. Battle of Arbela. 

30. Darius assassinated. 

28. Alexander invades India. 
24. Alexander dies at Babylon, 


90. Rome burnt 
by the Gauls 
76. Civil war be¬ 
tween Pa¬ 
tricians and 
Plebeians. 
40. War with 
Latins. 


32 - 


Treaty with 
Alexander. 


FROM ALEXANDER TO AUGUSTUS. 


300 


200 


EGYPT. 

22. Ptolemy I. 

1. Battle of Ip- 
sus. 


84. Ptolemy 
Phila d e 1 - 
phus. 

46. Ptolemy 
Evergetes. 

Eg y p t i a ns 
conquer 
Syria. 

21. Ptolemy 
Philopater. 

4. Ptolemy 
Epiphanes. 


SYRIA. 

23. Seleucus I. 


83. Antioch us 

I. 

46. Seleucus II. 
26. Seleucus III 
23. Antioch us 
the Great. 


MACEDON. 


88. L y s i m a - 
clius, King 
of Thrace, 
subj ects 
Macedon. 

20. Philip V. 

11. War with 
Rome. 


ROME. 

21. Romans de- 
f e ate d by 
Pantius. 


81. War with 
Pyrrhus, 
King of Epi¬ 
rus. 

64. First Punic 
war. 

56. Defeat of 
Carthagini- 


16. Battle of 
Cannae. 

2. Scipio carries 
the war into 
Africa. 

















(IV.) 


8o. Ptolemy Phi- 
lometer. 


45. Ptolemy 

Physcon. 


17. Ptolemy La¬ 
thy rus. 


100 


82. Thebes d e 
stroyed. 


6c. Ptolemy Au- 
letus. 


51. Ptolemy Bac¬ 
chus and 
Cleopatra. 


43. Cleopatra. 


31. Battle of Ac- 
tium. 


30. Egypt a Ro¬ 
man prov¬ 
ince. 


98. Independent. 


7c. Antiochus 

IV. 


70. A n ti o c h u s 
plundersje- 
rusalem. 


30. Antiochus 
VII. 


23. A ntiochus 

VIII. 


12. Antiochus 
IX. 


69. Antiochus 
XII. 

65. Antiochus 
defeated by 
Pompey. 

Syria subject 
to Rome. 


99. Second war 
with Rome. 


72. Third Roman 
war. 


68. B a t t 1 e of 
Pydna 


M a c e d o n 
conquered. 


92. War with 
Syria. 


49. Third Pu¬ 
nic war. 


46. C ar thage 
destroyed 

33. Spam subjugated. 

21. Agrarian trouble. 

2. Servile war. 


91. Social war. 

88, War with Pontus. 

87. Civil war between Scylla 
and Marius. 

63 Cicero defeats a conspiracy 
of Catiline. 

60. First triumvirate — Julius 


Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. 
55. Caesar invades Britain. 

51. Gaul becomes a Roman province. 
48. Civil war. Battle of Pharsalia. 
44. Assassination of Julius Caesar. 


B. C. 27. Octavius, emperor, under the title of Augustus Caesar. 


BIRTH OF CHRIST. 


A. D. 


FROM AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE. 


3 


54. Nero. 70. Destruction of Jerusalem. 

79. Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, covering Pompeii and Hercu¬ 
laneum. 


100 62. Fourth persecution. 97. Battle of Lyons. 


200 62. Dreadful pestilence. 


300 23. Constantine sole emperor. 







































(V.) 

WESTERN EMPIRE. 

EASTERN EMPIRE. 

400 

Goths under Alaric overrun Italy. 

8. Theodosius II. 


io. Rome besieged and sacked. 

47. Tribute paid to Attila, 
King of the Huns. 


19. Romans leave Britain. 

50. Marcian. 


S 5 * Anglo-Saxons conquer Britons. 



72. Visigoths conquer Spain. 



76. Odoacer captures Rome. End of 
the Empire. 



86. Franks in Gaul. 

89. Ostrogoths in Italy. 


500 

7. Kingdom of the Franks founded 
by Clovis. 

2. Empire ravaged by the 
Persians. 


52. Ostrogoths expelled from Italy. 

29. Justinian code published. 


96. Lombards overrun Italy. 

81. Slavonians in Thrace. 

600 

56. Clovis II. king of France. 

12. Mohammed spreads his 
doctrines. 

- 

62. Lombards defeat Constans II. in 
Italy. 

14. Persians ravage Syria 
and Palestine. 


97. Conquest of Northern Africa by 
the Saracens. 

40. Saracens invade Egypt. 

73. Siege of Constantinople. 

700 

11. Saracens invade Spain. 

32. Battle of Tours. 

Saracens defeated by the Franks 
under Charles Martel. 

74. Charlemagne conquers the Lom¬ 
bards. 

20. Saracens defeated at 
Constantinople. 

30. Iconoclasts burn and de¬ 
stroy works of art. 

800 

Charlemagne emperor of the.West. 

11. Bulgarians defeat the 
Greek emperor. 
















(VI.) 

FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO NAPOLEON. 


ENGLAND. 

FRANCE. 

GERMANY. 

ELSEWHERE. 

800 

28. Egbert king. 

71. Alfred the 
. Great. 

51. Pill aged 
by 

Northmen. 

14. Louis the De- 
bonnaire. 
7c. Charles the 
Bald. 

9. D e a t h of 
Haroun al 
R a sc h id, 
the Caliph. 

900 

24. Athelstan. 

■w ' 

79. Edward the 
Martyr as¬ 
sassinated. 

12. Rollo, 
Duke of 
Normandy. 
87. Hugh Ca¬ 
put, King 
of France 

Henry I. 

34. Danes de¬ 
feated. 

62. Othol. unites 
Italy and 
Germany. 

70. Russians in¬ 
vade Thrace 
and are de¬ 
feated. 

1000 

13. Svenn con- 
quersEng- 
4 land. 

17. Canute king. 
42. Edward the 
Confessor. 
66. Battle of 
Hastings. 

' William the 
Conqueror. 

98. War with 
England. 

56. Henry IV. 

77. Henry IV. 
goes to 
Canossa 
and sub¬ 
mits to the 
Pope. 

65. Turks cap¬ 
ture Jeru¬ 
salem. 

96. F i r s t Cru¬ 
sade. 

99. C ru sa d ers 
take Jeru¬ 
salem. 

1100 

Henry I. 

35. Stephen. 

,54. The Planta- 
genets. 

Henry II. 

71. Invasion .of 
Ireland. 

89. R i c h a r d 
Cceur de 
Lion. 

99.John Lack- 
land. 

8. Louis the 
Fat. 

37. Louis VII. 

So. Philip II. 

6. Henry V. 

38. Conrad III. 

52. Frederick I. 

Barbarossa. 
54. Invades Italy 
62. M i 1 a n de¬ 
stroyed. 

76. B a t t 1 e of 
Legnano. 

D e f e a t of 
Barbarossa. 

25. Venice flour¬ 
ishes. 

46. Second Cru¬ 
sade. 

59. War of the 
Guelphsand 
Ghibellines. 

72. Saladin’s 
conquest in 
Asia. 

S7. Third Cru¬ 
sade. 

94. Fourth Cru¬ 
sade. 

1200 

\ 

15. Magna Char- 

ta signed. 

16. Henry III. 

72. Edward I. 

82. Conquest of 

Wales., 

97. Sir William 
Wallace in 
Scotland. 

14. Battle of 
Bouvines. 
23. Louis VIII 
26. Louis IX. 
70. Philip III. 
85. Philip IV. 

41. H a n se a tic 
League 
formed. 
73. The II a p s- 
burgs. 
Rudolph I. 

92. Adolph. 

98. Albert I. 

F i f t h Cru¬ 
sade. 

17. Sixth Cru¬ 

sade. 

18. G e n g li i s 

Khan, the 
Mogul, 
conquer 0 r 
of Asia. 

68. Eighth and 
last Crusade. 























1300 


ENGLAND. 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


ELSEWHERE. 


7. Edward II. 

14. B a 111 c of 
Bannock¬ 
burn. 

27. Edward III. 

46. Battle of 
Cressy. 


14. L o u i s X. 
16. P h i 1 i p V. 
21. Charles IV. 
28. Philip VI. 


7. Revolt o f 
the Swiss. 
William 

Tell. 


15. Battle of 
Mo r gar- 
ten. 


11. Knights 
Templar 
suppressed. 

40. B a 11 1 e of 
Tarifa i n 
Spain — 
Moors de¬ 
feated. 


56. B a 11 1 e of 
Poictiers. 

77. Richard II. 

99. Henry IV. 
of Lancas¬ 
ter. 


50. John II. 

64. Charles V. 
So. CharlesVI. 


49. Charles IV. 
of House 
of L u x- 
emburg. 

78. W e n c e s- 
laus. 


47. Rienzi frees 
Rome. 

96. Battle of 
Nicopolis. 
Christian s 
defeated. 


1400 


13. H e n r y V. 
War with 
France. 


15. B a t t 1 e of 
Agincourt. 


22. Henry VI. 


53. War of the 
Roses. 


61. H o u s e of 
York. 

Edward IV. 


83. Edward V. 
Richard III. 


22. C h a r 1 e s 
VII. 


29. Joan of Arc 
raises 
siege of 
Orleans. 


ci. English ex¬ 
pelled 
from 
France. 


61. Louis XI. 


81. C h a r 1 e s 
VIII. 


96. Louis XII. 


10. Sigismund. 


38. House of 
Austria. 
Albert II., 
III. 


40. Frederick. 


93. Max i m i 1 
ian I. 


2. B a 11 1 e of 
Angora. 

Tamer lane 
captures 
Bajazet. 

22. Amurath II. 
consolid’es 
Ottoman 
Empire. 

42. B a t t 1 e of 
Vasag. 

Turks beat¬ 
en by Hun¬ 
garians. 

53. Amurath II. 
ca p t u r e s 
Constanti¬ 
nople. 

56. Battle of Bel¬ 
grade. 


1500 


85 - 


The Tudors. 
Henry VII. 

Henry VIII. 


13. B a 1 11 e of 
Flodden. 


36. Ann Boleyn 
beheaded. 


47. Edward VI. 


(VII.) 


53. Mary. 

58. Elizabeth. 


92. Columbus 
dis c ove r s 
America. 


13. English in¬ 
vasion. 

rs. Fran c i s I. 

25. B a 11 1 e of 
Pavia. 

47. Henry II. 

59. Francis II. 

60. Hugue not 

war. 


17. Ref o r m a- 
tion— 
Luther. 
19. Charles V. 
21. Diet of 

W orins. 
56. Abdication 
of Charles 
V. 

Ferdinand 

I. 


21. Wars of 

Charles V. 
in Italy. 

53. Ivan IV., 

Russia. 

56. Philip II. in 
Spain. 

65. Netherlands 
revolt. 









VIII. 


1600 


1700 


ENGLAND. 


FRANCE. 


GERMANY. 


87. M a r y of 
Scots be¬ 
headed. 


88. Spanish Ar¬ 
mada. 


3. The Stuarts. 
James I. 

25. Charles I. 

49. Common- 
wealth. 
Oliver 
Cromwell. 


72. Mass acre 
St. Bar¬ 
tholo¬ 
mew’s 
day. 

84. Henry III. 

89. Henry IV. 
of Na¬ 
varre. 


10. Louis XIII. 


27. S i e g e of 
Rochelle. 


43. Louis XIV. 


64. Ma x i m i 1 - 
ian II. 

76. Rudolph 


12. Mathi a s. 

18. Thirty y’rs 

war. 

19. Ferdina n d 

II. 

20. B a 11 1 e of 

Prague. 


60. Stuarts r e- 
stored. 

Cha r 1 e s II. 

79. Habeas Cor¬ 
pus act. 

85. James II. 

88. William and 
Mary. 

90. Battle of the 
Boyne. 


2. Anne. 

14. H o u s e of 
Ha n ove r. 

G e o r g e I. 

27. Ge o r g e II. 

39. War with 
Spain. 

46. Stuart troub¬ 
les in Scot¬ 
land. 

Battle of 
Culloden. 

56. War with 
France. 

60. George III. 

75. War with 
Americ a n 
Colonies. 


48. Wars of the 
Fronde. 


72. H o 11 a n d 
invaded. 


85. E d i c t of 
Nantes 
revoked. 


15. Louis XV. 

45. Battle of 
Fontenoy. 

74. Louis XVI. 

89. States Gen¬ 

eral. 

90. Revolution. 

93. Louis XVI. 
beheaded. 
Republic. 

99. Napol eon 
First Con¬ 
sul. 


30. Invasion of 
Gustavus 
Adolphus 
of Swe¬ 
den. 

32. B a 11 1 e of 
Lutzen. 

37. Ferdina n d 
III. 

59. Leopold I. 


5. Jose ph I. 
11. Charles VI. 
40. Char’s VII. 
W ar of the 
Austria n 
succes¬ 
sion. 

45. House of 
Loraine. 
Fra n c i s I. 
65. Joseph II. 
90. Leopold II. 

92. Francis II. 

93. Rhenish 

Provinces 
revolt. 
95. War w i t h 
France. 


ELSEWHERE.* 

71. Battle of Le- 
panto. 

81. Ho Hand a 
republic. 


52. Dutch Ad¬ 
miral Van 
Tromp. 


83. John Sobies- 
ki, king of 
Poland, 
defeats the 
Tu r k s at 
Vienna. 


89. P e t e r the 
Great, 
Russia. 


97. Charles XII. 
Sweden. 


1. W ar of 
Spanish 
succession, i 
9. B a 11 1 e of 
Pu 11 o wa, 
defeat o f 
Charles 
XII. 

25. Catherine I. 
of Russia. 

40. Frederick II. 
of Prussia. 

60. Capt u r e of 
Berlin. 

62. Catherine II. 
of Russia. 

95. Partition of 
Poland. 

Prussia en¬ 
larged. 

















ENGLAND. 

i. Union with 
Ireland. 


3. War with 
France. 


5. B a t 1 1 e of 
Trafalgar. 


8. Penins u 1 a r 
war. 


12. War with 
United 

States. 


15. B a 11 1 e of 
W aterloo. 


FRANCE. 

4. Napoleon 

emperor. 

5. Battle of 
Austerlitz. 

6. Of Jena. 

9. Of W a g- 
ram. 

12. Rus s i a n 
campaign. 

13. War with 

all Eu¬ 
rope. 

14. Allies en¬ 

ter 

France. 
Napoleo n 
sent to 
Elba. 

15. Napoleon 

retur ns. 
Battle of 
W aterloo. 
Napoleo n 
sent to St. 
Helena. 


GERMANY. 

5. Kingdoms of 
Ba v a r i a, 
Westp h a- 
1 i a and 
Wurte in¬ 
fo c r g es¬ 
tablished. 

6. Prussians at 
war with 
France. 
French enter 
Berlin. 

10. France a n- 
nexes N’th 
Germany. 

13. French evac¬ 

uate Ber¬ 
lin. 

14. Pru s si a n s 

occupy 

Paris. 

15. Germanic 

confedera¬ 

tion 

formed. 


ELSEWHERE. 

x. AlexanderI. 
Russia. 


5. Russia joins 
the coa 1 i - 
tion 

against 

France. 


12. French i n- 
vade Rus¬ 
sia. 

Moscow 

burnt. 


15. Holy Alli- 
a n c e be¬ 
tween Rus¬ 
sia, Prus- 
s i a and 
Austria. 


FROM NAPOLEON TO THE PRESENT TIME. 


ENGLAND. 

20. George IV. 

30. William IV. 

37. Vi c t o r i a. 

39. War wit h 
China. 

48. Tro u b 1 e in 
Ireland. 

53. Crimean 

war. 

56. War with 

Persia. 

57. Indian muti¬ 

ny. 

67. War with 
Abyssinia. 

73. Ash an tee 
war. 

’78. War in Af¬ 
ghanistan. 

79. Zula war. 


FRANCE. 

24. Ch a r 1 e s 
X. 

30. Conque s t 
Algiers. 
Louis 
Phillipe. 

48. Revolu¬ 
tion. 

Republic. 

51. Coup d’e¬ 
tat. 

C2. Napoleo n 
III. em¬ 
peror. 

59. War with 
Austria. 
Battles of 
Ma gen- 
ta and 
Solferino. 

70. War with 
Prussia. 
Battle of 
Sedan. 


PRUSSIA. 

40. Fre d e r i c k 
Wi 11 i a m 
IV. king. 

48. I nsurrection 
in Berlin. 

61. Will i a m I. 

64. War with 
Denmark. 

66. War with 
Austria. 
Battle of Sa- 
dowa. 

70. Invasion of 

France. 

71. German Em¬ 

pire re-es¬ 
tablished. 
William I. 
emperor. 


ELSEWHERE. 

27. Greece inde¬ 
pendent. 

48. Hunga r i a n 
war. 

Francis J o- 
seph e m- 
p e r o r of 
Austria. 

54. Siege of Se¬ 

bastopol. 

55. A 1 ex a n d e r 

II., Russia. 

61. Victor 

Emanuel 
king of It¬ 
aly. 

68. Revolu tion 
in Spain. 

70. A m a d e u s 

king of 
Spain. 

71. Rome capi¬ 

tal ofItaly. 



















1800 


(X.) 


ENGLAND. 

FRANCE. 

GERMANY. 

80. F a m i n e in 

70. Surrender 

88. D e a t h of 

Ireland. 

of Napo- 

William I. 

Land 

leon. 

Acc e s s i 0 n 

League. 

71. O utbreak 

and death 


of the 

of Freder- 

82. War in 

Com- 

ick III. 

Egypt. 

mune. 

William II. 


Paris tak- 


88. Irish home 

en by 

89. Mining 

rule d i s- 

storm. 

strikes. 

cussions. 

Repub 1 i c. 



Thie r s 


U. S. Gov- 

presi’ent. 


dismiss 

73. M acM a- 


Lord Sack- 

hon pres- 


ville, Brit- 

ident. 


ish minis- 

79. Jules Gre- 


ter. 

vy presi- 



dent. 



87. Sadi-Car - 



not presi- 



dent. 



89. Boulanger 



ex c i t e- 



ment. 






ELSEWHERE. 

75. A 1 p h o n s o 

VII-, . 

Spain. 

77. Russo- 

Turkish 

war. 

79. H u m b e r t 
king of 

Italy. 

81. Alexa n d e r 

II. of Rus¬ 
sia assassi¬ 
nated. 

Alexa n d e r 

III. 


Norfolk. So fare you well, my little good Cardinal Wolsey. 
Wolsey. So fare you well to the little good you bare me. 
Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness! 

This is the state of man: to-day he puts forth 
The tender leaves of hopes, to-morrow blossoms, 

And bears his blushing honors thick upon him: 

And the third day comes a frost, a killing frost; 

And—when he thinks, good easy man, full surely 
His greatness is a ripening—nips his root 
And then he falls as I do. I have ventured, 

Like little wanton boys that swim on bladders, 

This many summers in a sea of glory, 

But far beyond my depth: my high-blown pride 
At length broke under me, and now has left me 
Weary and old with service, to the mercy 
Of a rude stream that must forever hide me. 

Vain pomp and glory of this world, I hate ye! 

Shakespeare, Henry VIII., Act III., Scene 2 . 

















r— 

(XL) 

A. D. !' 
985 
1492 

1497 

1498 

1499 

1512 

1513 
1521 
1528 
1534 
1544 
1565 
1685 

1607 


1733 


AMERICA. 

Icelandic discovery. 

Christopher Columbus discovers America. 
Cabot discovers Newfoundland. 

The Cabots on the Atlantic coast. 

Amerigo Vespucci’s voyage. 

Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon, 
Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean. 

Cortez conquers Mexico. 

Narvaez visits Florida. 

Cartier explores the St. Lawrence. 

De Soto discovers the Mississippi. 

St. Augustine in Florida founded. 

First settlement at Roanoke Island a failure. 




THE COLONIES. 


Settlement at Jamestown. 

Virginia. 

14. New Amsterdam settled bv Dutch. 

New York. 

20. Puritans land at Plymouth Rock. 

Massachusetts. 

27. Swedes and Finns settlement. 

Delaware. 

34. Catholic settlement at St. Mary’s. 

Maryland. 

35. Settlements at Hartford and Windsor.... 

Connecticut. 

36. Roger Williams settles. ' 

P.hode Island. 

64. Elizabethtown settled. 

New Jersey. 

65. Clarendon colony settlement. 

North Carolina. 

70. Carteret colony found old Charleston. 

South Carolina. 

82. William Penn . 

Pennsylvania. 

Oglethorpe founds Savannah. 

Georgia. 

41. Separated from Massachusetts. 

New Hampshire. 














































1754 


1800 


55 - 
58 . 
. 6s- 
68 . 
7 °. 

74 - 

75 - 

76. 

77 - 


78. 

81. 

83. 

87. 

88 . 


89. 


9 °. 


91. 


92. 


94 - 

96. 


97 - 

99. 


2. 


French and Indian war. (XII.) 

Braddock’s defeat. 

Fort DuQuesne taken by Washington. 

Colonial Congress at New York resists stamp act. 

General Gates sent to Boston. 

Boston massacre. 

Congress meets in Philadelphia. 

The Revolutionary War begins with battle of Lexington. 
Battle of Bunker Hill. 

Declaration of Independence. 

Battle of Princeton. 

Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga. 

Battle of Monmouth. 

Battle of Cowpens. 

Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 

Treaty of peace. 

Constitution adopted. 

Constitution ratified by eleven States. 


THE UNITED STATES. 

George Washington president. 

John Adams vice-president. 

Indian war in Ohio. 

Vermont admitted. 

Kentucky admitted. 

Whiskey insurrection. 

Tennessee admitted. 

John Adams president. 

Thomas Jefferson vice-president. 

Death of Washington. 

Washington City, D. C., the capital. 

Thomas Jefferson president. 

Aaron Burr vice-president. 

Ohio admitted. 


SPANISH AND 
BRITISH AMERICA. 


3. Hayti Republic. 

8. King of Portugal 
goes to Brazil. 


- 














1803 


Louisiana purchased from the French. 
War with Tripoli. 

5. George Clinton vice-president. 


(XIII.) 


* 7 - Trial of Aaron Burr. 


9. James Madison president. 

George Clinton vice-president. 


9. Buenos Ayres 
War of Inde¬ 
pendence. 


11. Battle of Tippecanoe. 


12. Louisiana admitted. 
War with England. 
Invasion of Canada. 
Surrender of Mackinaw. 


11. Dr. Francia dic¬ 
tator of Para¬ 
guay. 


13. Battle of Lake Erie. 

Com. Perry captures English fleet. 
Elbridge Gerry vice-president. 
Battle of the Thames. 


15. Brazil made a 
kingdom. 


14. Battle of Lundy’s Lane. 16. Buenos Ayres 

English capture Washington city and independent. 

burn public buildings. 

Battle of North Point. 

Bombardment of Fort McHenry. 


15. Battle of New Orleans. 

16. Indiana admitted. 


17. Chili,after a hard 
struggle, inde¬ 
pendent. 


17. James Mpnroe president. 

Daniel Tompkins vice-president. 
Mississippi admitted. 


18. Illinois admitted. 
Florida war. 


19. Alabama admitted. 
Purchase of Florida. 


20. Missouri Compromise. 
Maine admitted. 


21. Missouri admitted. 


23. Monroe doctrine declared. 

24. Visit of Lafayette. 


21. Mexico indepen¬ 

dent. 

Spaniards driven 
out of Peru. 

22. Brazil indepen¬ 

dent. 

Dom Pedro em¬ 
peror. 

Iturbide emperor 
of Mexico. 
United States ac¬ 
knowledge in¬ 
dependence of 
So’h American 
Republics. 

24. Bolivar dictator 
of Peru. 

2C. Bolivia indepen¬ 
dent. 
















1825 

John Quincy Adams president. 

John C. Calhoun vice-president. 

28. Uruguay inde¬ 
pendent. 


28. Protective tariff bill passed. 



29. Andrew Jackson president. 

John C. Calhoun vice-president. 

32. Veto United States Bank bill. 

Black Hawk war. 

29. Formation of 
United States 
of Colombia. 


33. Martin Van Buren vice-president. 

Public funds withdrawn from United 
States Bank. 

35. Seminole war. 

31. Dom Pedro ab¬ 
dicates, his six 
year old son, 
Dom Pedro II., 
emperor of 
Brazil. 


36. Arkansas admitted. 

32. Texans revolt. 


37. Martin Van Buren president. 

Richard M. Johnson vice-president. 
Michigan admitted. 

Financial crisis, banks suspend, busi¬ 
ness failures and distress throughout 
the country. 

33. D e f e a t of the 
Mexicans. 


40. Northeastern boundary line disputes. 

41. - William H. Harrison president. 

John Tyler vice-president. 

Harrison dies April 4th. 

John Tyler president. 

Veto of bank bill. 

37. Insurrection i n 
Canada. 


43. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 



44. Texas applies for annexation. 



45. James K. Polk president. 

George M. Dallas vice-president. 

Texas annexed. 

Florida admitted. 

45. War between U. 
S. and Mexico. 


46. Iowa admitted. 

War with Mexico. Battles of Palo Alto 
and Resaca de la Palma. 



47. Buena Vista, Cerro Gordo and Contreras. 
Capture of city of Mexico. 



48. Acquisition of New Mexico and Cali¬ 
fornia. 

Wisconsin admitted. 

(XIV.) 






1849 


(XV.) 


Zachary Taylor president. 

Millard Fillmore vice-president. 

50. President Taylor dies. 

Millard Fillmore president. 
California admitted. 

Fugitive slave law passed. 

53. Franklin Pierce president. 

William Rufus King vice-president. 
Martin Kosta protection. 

55. Commotions in Kansas. 


57. James Buchanan president. 

John C. Breckinridge vice-president. 
Dred Scott decision. 


58. Minnesota admitted. 


59. Oregon admitted. 


61. Kansas admitted. 

61. Abraham L i n- 
coln president. 

Hannibal Ham¬ 
lin vice-presi’t. 

Attack on Fort 
Sumter. 

Harper’s Ferry 
and Norfolk 
seized. 

Battle of Bull 
Run. 


62. Capture of Fort 

Donelson. 
Battle of Pea 
Ridge. 

Battle of Shiloh. 
Battle of Fair 
Oaks. 

Seven days’ bat¬ 
tles—C h i c k a- 
hominy. 

Battle of Cedar 
Mountain. 
Second battle of 
Bull Run. 

63. Emancipation 

prod amation 
issued. 

West Virginia 
admitted. 


CONFEDERATE 

STATES. 

61. South Carolina, 

Mississippi,Ala¬ 
bama, Florida, 
Georgia, Louis¬ 
iana, Texas, 
Arkansas, Ten¬ 
nessee and N’th 
Carolina, se¬ 
cede. 

Jefferson Davis 
president. 

Virginia secedes. 

62. Battles of Corinth, 

o f Fredericks¬ 
burg, of Mur¬ 
freesboro. 

63. Battle of Chan- 

cellorsville. 

Siege of Vicks¬ 
burg. 

Battle of Gettys¬ 
burg. 

Battle of Chicka- 
mauga. 


50. Lopez’ attempt 
on Cuba. 


51. Lopez garroted. 


53. Santa Anna dic¬ 
tator of Mexi¬ 
co. 


56. Walker’s N i c- 
araguan expe¬ 
dition. 


58. Juarez president 
of Mexico. 


62. France at war 
with Mexico. 


63. French enter 
city of Mexico. 


Archduke Max¬ 
imilian of Aus¬ 
tria invited to 
be c o m e e m- 
peror. 


64. He accepts. 











1864 


XVI. 


Battles of the Wil¬ 
derness. 


Siege of Peters¬ 
burg. 


65 - 


Nevada admitted. 

65. Andrew Johnson 
vice-president. 

President Lincoln 
shot, April 14th. 


65. Battle of Five 
Forks. 


Capture of Peters¬ 
burg and Rich¬ 
mond. 


66 . 


Andrew Johnson 
president. 

Amnest}'' issued 
by the president. 


Surrender of Lee, 
Johns ton and 
Kirby Smith. 

End of the war. 


67. Nebraska admitted. 

Alaska purchased. 

68. Readmission of Southern States. 

69. Ulysses S. Grant president. 

Schuyler Colfax vice-president. 

72. Genevan award. 

73. Henry Wilson vice-president. 

Modoc war. 

75. Colorado admitted. 

77. Rutherford B. Ilayes president. 
William A. Wheeler vice-president. 
Railroad riots. 


67. 

69. 

79 

S9. 


81. James A. Garfield president. 

Chester A. Arthur vice-president. 
President Garfield shot by Guiteau. 
Chester A. Arthur president. 

85. Grover Cleveland president. 

Thomas A. Hendricks vice-president. 

86. Anarchist riot, Chicago. 

88. Lord Sackville, British minister, dis¬ 

missed. 

89. Benjamin W. Harrison president. 

Levi P. Morton vice-president. 

North and South Dakota, Washington 
and Montana admitted to the Union. 


Paraguay at war 
with Uruguay, 
Brazil and Ar- 
gentineRepub- 
lic. 

Spain snd Chili 
at war. 

Juarists in Mex¬ 
ico have great 
successes. 

Surrender and 
execution o f 
Maximilian. 

Cuban revolt. 

War between 
Chili and Peru. 

Civil war in 
Hayti. 























































































H 


The World’s Food Supply . 

Average yearly Production and Consumption. 
From Mulhall’s estimates. 


i 


□ 

15 


Grain, Bushels, 

River Plate 
6.000,000 6,000,000 
Algeria 

20 , 000,000 15 , 000,000 
Portugal 

30 , 000,000 35 , 000,000 
Australia 

58 , 000,000 41 , 000,000 
Denmark 

74 ,000,000 62 , 000,000 
Holland I T 

50 , 000,000 65 , 000 , 000 1 — v 
Swed, and Norway 

78 , 000,000 84 , 000,000 
Turkey, Greece 
90 , 000,000 80 , 000,000 

Belgium 

95 , 000,000 120 , 000 , 

Canada 

110 ^000,000 160 , 00 M 0 a 

270,000,000 275,000, ~ ' J ™ 

Spain 

305,000,000 300,0 QQ,(|X), 
Austria 
560 , 000,000 
530 , 000,000 
Gr. Britain' 

410 , 000,000 
690 , 000,000 

France 
740 , 000,000 
910 l 000 l 000 




Germanv 

950 , 000,000 

1 , 065 , 000,000 


Russia 

1 , 620 , 000,000 

1 , 440 , 000,000 


*- 


United States 
2 , 390 , 000,000 
2 , 020 , 000,000 


I —| 54,000 
1 47,000 


S.-s'S : 
® 2 
§8 | 

2* P M 

O <J3 
. +3 

to 43 

S ° d 
§ § > 

g p, 

2 2 
fl 2 £ 

O 

•43 fl g 

O O £ 

2 0 2 
03 a 

§ 

P4 bp ^"43 

,2 © 9 

> p 

, s« r « 

g«w 2 

So & 


Meat, Tons. 
1 , 310,000 
279,000 
] 110,000 
82,000 


990,000 
152,000 
TZTll2,000 

L4J 52000 
‘ 144,000 
87 000 
-1 213,000 
-J 146,000 

-1 250,000 

- 1 250,000 


0 92,000 
140,000 


287,000 
270,000 
224,000 
215,000 
[ 196,000 

Lmoop 


960,000 



1 , 205,000 

1 , 808,000 


1 ,002,000 

1 , 226,000 



1 , 340,000 

1 , 700,000 

2 , 116,000 

1 , 925,000 



3 , 816,000 

2 , 740,000 


* 







































































► 4 


-> 4 


Wealth of Nations . 


GERMANY 
* 31 , 600 , 000,000 


2 , 950 , 000,000 


3 , 150 , 000,000 


4 , 935 , 000,000 


Spain 

7 , 965 , 000,000 


Russia 

21 , 715 , 000,000 


FRANCE 
$ 40 , 300 , 000,000 


Australia 

Mexico 

Neth’l’ds 

Norway 

1,410,000,000 


Arg. Rep. 

1,000,000,000 


Canada 

Sweden 

Belgium 

Greece 

1,055,000,000 

I I 

Switzl’d 

1,020,000,000 


] lzi 


Portugal 

1,855,000,000 


Denmark 

1,830,000,000 


3 , 250 , 000,000 


3 , 475 , 000,000 


4 , 030 , 000,000 


Italy 

11 , 755 , 000,000 


Austria 

18 , 065 , 000,000 


UNITED STATES 


$ 47 , 475 , 000,000 




GR. BRITAIN and 
IRELAND 

$ 43 , 600 , 000,000 






































► 4- 


Great 

Britain 


Our Foreign Trade . 
U 888 .) 


$ 364 , 210,116 

$ 180 , 136,570 

In the small.blocks below the 
figures stand for millions. 



Germany 

France 

Canada 


West Indies and 
Cent’l America 


56 , 414,171 


43 , 200,446 


78 , 421,835 


72 , 109,816 


37 , 245,119 


25.2 


43 , 084,123 


42 , 842,097 


Brazil 

7.1 

' 53 , 710,234 

Cuba 

10 . 




49 , 319,087 





Belgium 

25 , 180,722 

9.8 

Italy 

12.7 

18.4 

Spain 

14.6 

15.5 

Neth’l’ds 

16.2 

1 

12.3 

East Ind. 

Jdi 


' 21.7 



Mexico 

98 j 


17.2 

China 

7.9 

17.8 

Japan 

4.2 

18.6 

Australia 


1 

mi 

i 

i 5 

Russia 



11.3 p .5 

Hawaii Isl’ds 


3 | 11 

Switzerland 


13.7 

Argent. Rep. 


6 .6| 

L 

5.9 

Colombia 




5 | 4.3 

Austria 



L 

'8.6 

Portugal 


5,2 1.5 II 

Sweden & Nor. 

2.7 3.2 

1 

Chili 


. 2.4 

2.8 1 

, r Denmark 



3.6 1 

m 

All other Count’s 

3 , 

9.8 


it 














































































Growth of U. S* Population since 1820 . 


Immigration, 
and increase. 


Original Stock 
and increase. 


1889 - 


SI, 467,649 


1880 —- 


Colored 
























*- 


- ■ 

Religion in the United States . 



Swedenborgians 5,750 f 
Hebrews 13,683 p 


=12,400 

JL 10,966 

Shakers 

Moravians 

Mormons 

225,000 


J 20,00 

Unitarians 

Mennonites 

93,000 


| 37,807 Universalists 

Friends 

107,968 


100,441 

Adventists 

Ger. Evang. 

125,000 


120,000 

Christ.Union 

























































































































































Tlie Climates of the United States 










































Comparative Growth 
of Seven Languages during 
Eighty-two Years . 


A fair inference is that English 
become the universal medium. 




















































































































V c 


N.J 








6 






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o 

oi r 


U. 


'<ZZSx \ 

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o 


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-* vi!" * 

pj 




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.) §, 4 - * i 


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V- l~ _ 


j 


<* 

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s. 


SSIIAI 


rX 


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• \, 
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-•■—r 


- n j^L. 
Mm/** 

<%£/- 

•? k .<?/ 


(/) 

z 


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VA 


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1 4 f& 

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>►«- 




Duration of Life. 


Of 1,000,000 persons^ bom 


511,745. 
are Males 



in 

10 

years 


in 

20 

years 


in 

30 

years 


in 

40 

years 


in 

50 

years 


in 

60 

years 


in 

70 

years 


in 

80 

years 


in 

90 

years 


in 

100 

years 


in 

110 

years 


488,255 
are Females 


353,031 

Males are alive 


297,491 
have died 


333,608 
Males are alive 


337,250 
have died 


349,478 
Females are 
alive 


329,142 
Females alive 


304,534 

Males 


396,276 


299,190 

Females 


272,073 



461,952 


266,511 


535,720 


231,064 


182,350 


630,173 


187,477 


762,023 


# 


■r 


26 per cent, die 
during the first 5 
/years. Up to 53 years] 






/the males predominate,] 
thereafter the females. 


<v 

<b- 


79 / show the greater vitality.] 


144 


1,000,000 


* 

























































































































































INTERESTING FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


A hawk flies 150 miles per hour; an eider duck, 90 miles; a 
pigeon, 40 miles. 

A man’s working life is divided into four decades; 20 to 30, 
bronze; 30 to 40, silver; 40 to 50, gold; 50 to 60, iron. Intellect 
and judgment are strongest between 40 and 50. 

Hair which is lightest in color is also lightest in weight. 
Light or blonde hair is generally the most luxuriant, and it has 
been calculated that the average number of hairs of this color on 
an average person’s head is 140,000; while the number of brown 
hairs is 110,000, and black only 103,000. 

Goldsmith received $300 for the “Vicar of Wakefield;” Moore, 
$ I S,5 0 ° for “Lalla Rookh;” Victor Hugo, $12,000 for “Hernani;” 
Chateaubriand, $110,000 for his works; Lamartine, $16,000 for 
“Travels in Palestine;” Disraeli, $50,000 for “Endymion;” 
Anthony Trollope, $315,000 for forty-five novels; Lingard, $21,- 
500 for his “History of England;” Mrs. Grant received over 
$600,000 as royalty from the sale of “The Personal Memoirs of 
U. S. Grant.” 

One woman in 20, one man in 30 is barren—about 4 per cent. 
It is found that one marriage in 20 is barren—5 per cent. Among 
the nobility of Great Britain, 21 per cent, have no children, owing 
partly to intermarriage of cousins, no less than 4)^ per cent, 
being married to cousins. 

The capital employed in banking in the principal countries is 
as follows: Great Britain, $4,020,000,000; United States, $2,655,- 
000,000; Germany, $1,425,000,000; France, $1,025,000,000; Austria, 
$830,000,000; Russia, $775,000,000; Italy, $455,000,000; Australia, 
$425,000,000; Canada, $175,000,000. 

The largest bells are the following, and their weight is given 
in tons: Moscow, 202; Burmah, 117; Pekin, 53; Novgorod, 31; 
Notre Dame, 18; Rouen, 18; Olmutz, 18; Vienna, 18; St. Paul’s, 
16; Westminster, 14; Montreal, 12; Cologne, 11; Oxford, 8; St. 
Peter’s, 8. 

Bell-metal should have 77 parts copper, and 23 tin. 

American life average for professions (Boston): Store¬ 
keepers, 41.8 years; teamsters, 43.6 years; laborers, 44.6 years, 
seamen, 46.1 years; mechanics, 47.3 years; merchants, 48.4 years; 
lawyers, 52.6 years; farmers, 64.2 years. 

In the small-pox epidemic of 1881, in England, the returns 
showed 4,478 deaths per million inhabitants—98 vaccinated to 
4,380 unvaccinated, or in the proportion of 44 to 1. In the epi¬ 
demic at Leipsic in 1871, the death rate was 12,700 per million, 
70 per cent, of whom were unvaccinated. These figures are by 
Dr. Mulhall. In Boston the proportion was 15 to 50, and in 
Philadelphia, 17 to 64. 


225 



FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

During the Franco-German war the Germans lost only 263 
men from this disease, the French 23,499, the former having been 
revaccinated in barracks. In the war in Paraguay, the Bra¬ 
zilians lost 43,000 men from malignant or black small-pox, that 
is, 35 per cent, of their army, nine cases in ten proving fatal. 

A camel has twice the carrying power of an ox; with an 
ordinary load of 400 lbs. he can travel 12 to 14 days without 
water, going 40 miles a day. Camels are fit to work at 5 years 
old, but their strength begins to decline at 25, although they live 
usually till 40. 

The checks paid in New York and London in one month 
aggregate $6,350,000,000, which is greatly in excess of the value 
of all the gold and silver coin in existence. 

Pounds of water evaporated by 1 lb. of fuel as follows: 
Straw, 1.9; wood, 3.1; peat, 3.8; coke or charcoal, 6.4; coal, 7.9; 
petroleum, 14.6. 

In 1877 the newspaper Nationale of Paris had ten pigeons 
which carried dispatches daily between Versailles and Paris in 
fifteen to twenty minutes. In November, 1882, some pigeons, in 
face of a strong wind, made the distance of 160 miles, from Can¬ 
ton Vaud to Paris, in 6j^ hours, or 25 miles per hour. 

The average elevation of continents above sea level is: Europe, 
670 feet; Asia, 1,140 feet; North America, 1,150 feet; South 
America, 1,100 feet. 

In 1684, four men were taken alive out of a mine in England, 
after 24 days without food. In 1880, Dr. Tanner, in New York, 
lived on water for 40 days, losing 36 lbs. in weight. 

The fair of Nijni-Novgorod is the greatest in the world, the 
value of goods sold being as follows: 1841, $35,000,000; 1857, 
$60,000,000; 1876, $140,000,000; the attendance in the last named 
year including 150,000 merchants from all parts of the world. 
In that of Leipsic the annual average of sales is $20,000,000, 
comprising 20,000 tons of merchandise, of which two-fifths is 
books. 

The average annual production of flax is as follows: Russia, 
270,000 tons; Austria, 53,000; Germany, 48,000; Belgium and 
Holland, 38,000; France, 37,000; United Kingdom, 25,000; Italy, 
23,000; United States, 12,000; Scandinavia, 4,000—total, 510,000 
tons. 

A body weighing 140 lbs. produces 3 lbs. ashes; time for burn- 
ing, 55 minutes. 

The six largest diamonds in the world weigh, respectively, as 
follows: Kohinoor, 103 carats; Star of Brazil, 125 carats; Regent 
of France, 136 carats; Austrian Kaiser, 139 carats; Russian Czar, 
193 carats; Rajah of Borneo, 367 carats. The value of the above 
is not regulated by size, nor easy to estimate, but none of them 
is worth less than $500,000. [ 226 ] 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


According to Orfila, the proportion of nicotine in Havana 
tobacco is 2 per cent.; in French, 6 per cent, and in Virginia 
tobacco, 7 per cent. That in Brazilian is still higher. 

There were 2,180 lepers in Norway in 1883, accordingto Mul- 
hall. The numbers in Spain and Italy are considerable. In the 
Sandwich Islands the disease is so prevalent that the island of 
Molokai is set apart for lepers, who are under the direction of a 
French Jesuit priest. The death of Father Damien, in 1889, 
called attention to the noblest instance of self-sacrifice recorded 
in the nineteenth century. His place is now filled by a younger 
member of his order, who voluntarily sacrifices his health and 
life to aid the outcasts. In the Seychelles Islands leprosy is also 
common. 

One horse-power will raise 10 tons per minute a height of 12 
inches, working 8 hours a day. This is about 5,000 foot-tons daily, 
or 12 times a man’s work. 

The horse-power of Niagara is 3^ million nominal, equal, to 
10 million horses effective. 

Good clear ice two inches thick will bear men to walk on; 
four inches thick will bear horses and riders; six inches thick 
will bear horses and teams with moderate loads. 

The percentage of illegitimate births for various countries, as 
stated by Mulhall, is as follows: Austria, 12.9; Denmark, 11.2; 
Sweden, 10.2; Scotland, 8.9; Norway, 8.05; Germany, 8.04; 
France, 7.02; Belgium, 7.0; United States, 7.0; Italy, 6.8; Spain 
and Portugal, 5.5; Canada, 5.0; Switzerland, 4.6; Holland, 3*5; 
Russia, 3.1; Ireland, 2.3; Greece, 1.6. 

India Rubber is obtained mostly from the Seringueros of the 
Amazon, who sell it for about 12 cents a pound to the merchants 
of Para, but its value on reaching England or the United States 
is over 50 cents a pound. The best rubber forests in Brazil will 
ultimately be exhausted, owing to the reckless mode followed by 
the Seringueros, or tappers. The ordinary product of a tapper's 
work is from 10 to 16 lbs. daily. There are 120 india rubber 
manufacturers in the United States, employing 15,000 operatives, 
who produce 280,000 tons of goods, valued at $260,000,000 per 
annum. 

One pair of rabbits can become multiplied in four years into 
1,250,000. They were introduced in Australia a few years ago, 
and now that colony ships 6,000,000 rabbit skins yearly to Eng¬ 
land. 

The largest of the Pyramids, that of Cheops, is composed of 
four million tons of stone, and occupied 100,000 men during 20 
years, equal to an outlay of $200,000,000. It would now cost $20,- 
000,000 at a contract price of 36 cents per cubic foot. 

One tug on the Mississippi can take, in six days, from St. 

227 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

Louis to New Orleans, barges carrying 10,000 tons of grain, 
which would require 70 railway trains of fifteen cars each. Tugs 
in the Suez Canal tow a vessel from sea to sea in 44 hours. 

Comparative Scale of Strength.— Ordinary man, 100; 
Byron’s Gladiator, 173; Farnese Hercules, 362; Horse, 750. 

A man will die for want, of air in five minutes; for want of 
sleep, in ten days; for want of water, in a week; for want of 
food, at varying intervals, dependent on various circum¬ 
stances. 

The average of human life is 33 years. One child out of every 
four dies before the age of 7 years, and only one-half of the 
world’s population reach the age of 17. One out of 10,000 
reaches 100 years. The average number of births per day is 
about 120,000, exceeding the deaths by about 15 per minute. 
There have been many alleged cases of longevity in all ages, but 
only a few are authentic. 

The ratio of sickness rises and falls regularly with death rate 
in all countries, as shown by Dr. Farr and Mr. Edmonds at the 
London Congress of i860, when the following rule was estab¬ 
lished: Of 1,000 persons, aged 30, it is probable 10 will die in 
the year, in which case there will be 20 of that age sick through¬ 
out the year, and 10 invalids. Of 1,000 persons, aged 75, it is 
probable "that 100 will die in the year, in which case the sick and 
invalids of that age will be 300 throughout the year. For every 
1 op deaths let there be hospital beds for 200 sick, and infirmaries 
for 100 invalids. 

The estimated number of religious denominations among 
English-speaking communities throughout the world is as fol¬ 
lows: Episcopalians, 21,100,000; Methodists of all descriptions, 
15,800,000; Roman Catholics, 14,340,000; Presbyterians of all 
descriptions, 10,500,000; Baptists of all descriptions, 8,160,000; 
Congregationalists, 6,000,000; Unitarians, 1,000,000; Free 
Thought, 1,100,000; minor religious sects, 2,000,000; of no par¬ 
ticular religion, 20,000,000. Total English speaking population, 
100,000,000. 

The various nations of Europe are represented in the list of 
Popes as follows: English, 1; Dutch, 1; Swiss, 1; Portuguese, 1; 
African, 2; Austrian, 2; Spanish, 5; German, 6; Syrian,8; Greek, 
14; French, 15; Italian, 197. Eleven Popes reigned over 20 
years; 69, from 10 to 20; 57, from 5 to 10; and the reign of 116 
was less than 5 years. The reign of Pius IX. was the longest 
of all, the only one exceeding 25 years. Pope Leo XIII. is the 
258th Pontiff. The full number of the Sacred College is 70, 
namely: Cardinal Bishops, 6; Cardinal Priests, 50; Cardinal 
Deacons, 14. At present there are 62 Cardinals. The Roman 
Catholic hierarchy throughout the world, according to official 

228 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


returns published at Rome in 1884, consisted of 11 Patriarchs, 
and 1,153 Archbishops and Bishops. Including 12 coadjutor or 
auxiliary bishops, the number of Roman Catholic archbishops 
and bishops now holding office in the British Empire is 134. The 
numbers of the clergy are approximate only. 

Consumption. —Of the total number of deaths the percent¬ 
age traceable to consumption in the several States and Territories 
is as follows: Alabama. 9.6; Arizona, 6.1; Arkansas, 6.4; Cali¬ 
fornia, 15.6; Colorado, 8.2; Connecticut, 15.1; Dakota, 8.8; 
Delaware, 16.1; District of Columbia, 18.9; Florida, 8.3; Georgia, 
7.9; Idaho, 6.8; Illinois, 10.3, Indiana, 12.6; Iowa, 9.9; Kansas, 7.3; 
Kentucky, 15.7; Louisiana, 10.4; Maine, 19.2; Maryland, 14.0; 
Massachusetts, 15.7; Michigan, 13.2; Minnesota, 9.3; Mississippi, 
8.8; Missouri, 9.8; Montana, 5.6; Nebraska, 8.8; Nevada, 6.3; 
New Hampshire, 5.6; New Jersey, 8.9; New Mexico, 2.4; New 
York, 8.1; North Carolina, 9.5; Ohio, 13.8; Oregon, 12.1; Penn¬ 
sylvania, 12.6; Rhode Island, 14.6; South Carolina,9.8; Tennes¬ 
see, 14.5; Texas, 6.5; Utah, 2.8; Vermont, 16.1; Virginia, 12.2; 
Washington, 13.2; West Virginia, 13,0; Wisconsin, 10.4; Wyom¬ 
ing, 2.6; Average, 12.0. 

Capacity of the largest public buildings in the world: Coli¬ 
seum, Rome, 87,000; St. Peter’s, Rome, 54,000; Theater of 
Pompey, Rome, 40,000; Cathedral, Milan, 37,000; St. Paul’s, 
Rome, 32,000; St. Paul’s, London, 31,000; St. Petronia, Bologna, 
26,000; Cathedral, Florence, 24,300; Cathedral, Antwerp, 24,000; 
St. John Lateran, Rome, 23,000; St. Sophia’s, Constantinople, 
23,000; Notre Dame, Paris, 21,500; Theater of Marcellus, Rome, 
20,000; Cathedral, Pisa, 13,000; St. Stephen’s, Vienna, 12,400; St. 
Dominic’s, Bologna, 12,000; St. Peter’s, Bologna, 11,400; Cathe¬ 
dral, Vienna, 11,000; Gilmore’s Garden, New York, 8,443; 
La Scala, Milan, 8,000; Auditorium, Chicago, 7,000; Mormon 
Temple, Salt Lake City, 8,000; St. Mark’s, Venice, 7,500; Spur¬ 
geon’s Tabernacle, London, 6,000; Bolshoi Theater, St. Peters¬ 
burg, 5,000; Tabernacle (Talmage’s), Brooklyn, 5,000; Music 
Hall, Cincinnati, 4,824. 

There are 3,000,000 opium smokers in China. A paper read 
before the New York Medical Society by Dr. F. N. Hammond 
presents some important facts. In 1840 about 20,000 pounds of 
opium were consumed in the United States; in 1880, 533,450 
pounds. In 1868 there were about 90,000 habitual opium-eaters 
in the country, now they number over 500,000. More women 
than men are addicted to the use of the drug. The vice is one so 
easily contracted, so easily practiced in private, and so difficult 
of detection, that it presents peculiar temptations and is very in- 
siduous. The relief from pain that it gives and the peculiar ex¬ 
altation of spirits easily lead the victim to believe that the use 

229 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

of it is beneficial. Opium and chloral are today the most dead¬ 
ly foes of women. Dr. Hammond is the better qualified to 
speak on this subject from having once been a consumer of 
opium himself. To break off from the habit, he says, the opium- 
eater must reduce the quantity of his daily dose, using at the 
same time other stimulants, and gradually eliminate the deadly 
drug entirely. 

The degrees of alcohol in wines and liquors are: Beer, 4.0; 
porter, 4.5; ale, 7.4; cider, 8.6; Moselle, 9.6; Tokay, 10.2; Rhine, 
11.0; Orange, 11.2; Bordeaux, 11.5; hock, 11.6; gooseberry, 11.8, 
Champagne, 12.2; claret, 13.3; Burgundy, 13.6; Malaga, 17.3; 
Lisbon, 18.5; Canary, 18.8; sherry, 19.0; Vermouth, 19.0; 
Cape, 19.2;Malmsey, "19.7; Marsala, 20.2; Madeira, 21.0; port, 
23.2; Cura^oa, 27-of aniseed, 33.0; Maraschino, 34.0; Chartreuse, 
43.0; gin, 51.6; brandy, 53.4; rum, 53.7; Irish whisky, 53.9; 
Scotch, 54.3. 

Spirits are said to be “proof” when they contain 57 per cent. 
The maximum amount^of alcohol, says Parkes, that a mar. 
can take daily without injury to his health is that contained in 2 
oz. brandy, 34 pt. of sherry, % pt. of claret, or 1 pt. of beer. 

The measurement of that part of the skull which holds the 
brain is stated in cubic inches thus: Anglo-Saxon, 105; German, 
105; Negro, 96; Ancient Egyptian, 93; Hottentot, 58; Australian 
native, 58. In all races the male brain is about ten per cent, 
heavier than the female. The highest class of apes has only 16 
oz. of brain. A man’s brain, it is estimated, consists of 300,000- 
000 nerve cells, of which over 3,000 are disintegrated and destroyed 
every minute. Every one, therefore, has a new brain once in 
sixty days. But excessive labor, or the lack of sleep, prevents 
the repair of the tissues, and the brain gradually wastes away. 
Diversity of occupation, by calling upon different portions of 
the mind or body, successfully affords, in some measure, the re¬ 
quisite repose to each. But in this age of overwork there is no 
safety except in that perfect rest which is the only natural resto¬ 
rative of exhausted power. It has been noticed by observant 
physicians in their European travels that the German people, 
who, as a rule, have little ambition and no hope to rise above 
their inherited station, are peculiarly free from nervous diseases; 
but in America, where the struggle for advancement is sharp and 
incessant, and there is nothing that will stop an American but 
death, the period of life is usually shortened five, ten or twenty 
years by the effects of nervous exhaustion. After the age of 50 
the brain loses an ounce every ten years. Cuvier’s weighed 64, 
Byron’s 79, and Cromwell’s 90 ounces, but the last was diseased. 
Post-mortem examinations in France give an average of 55 to 60 
ounces for the brains of the worst class of criminals. 

230 


FACTS OF SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 

In the cholera visitation of 1866, the proportion of deaths per 
10,000 inhabitants in the principal cities of Europe was as fol¬ 
lows: London, 18; Dublin, 41; Vienna, 51; Marseilles, 64; Paris, 
66; Berlin, 83; Naples, 89; St. Petersburg, 98; Madrid, 102; 
Brussels, 184; Palermo, 197; Constantinople, 738. 

There were 48,930 blind people in the United States in 1880, 
and 33,880 deaf mutes. 

It is estimated that the number of insane persons in the 
United States is 168,900. Causes of Insanity. —Hereditary, 24 
per cent.; drink, 14 per cent.; business, 12 per cent.; loss of 
friends, n per cent; sickness, 10 per cent.; various, 29 per cent. 
This result is the medium average arrived at by Mulhall on 
comparing the returns for the United States, Engand, France 
and Denmark. 

No fewer than 1,326 editions of the Bible were published in 
the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centu¬ 
ries it was translated and published in many languages by the 
polyglot press of Propaganda Fide at Rome. In the nineteenth 
century the English and American societies have printed, in the 
Protestant version, 124,000,000 copies of the Bible or of the New 
Testament, viz: British, 74,000,000; American, 32,000,000; other 
societies, 15,000,000 copies. 

The King James version of the Bible contains 3,566,480 let¬ 
ters, 773,746 words, 31,173 verses, 1,189 chapters, and 66 books. 
The word and occurs 46,277 times. The word Lord occurs 
1,855 The word Reverend occurs but once, which is in 

the 9th verse of the mth Psalm. The middle verse is the 8th 
verse of the 118th Psalm. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of 
Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet except the letter J. 
The 19th chapter of II Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are 
alike. The longest verse is the 9th verse of the 8th chapter of 
Esther. The shortest verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter 
of St. John. There are no words or names of more than six syl¬ 
lables. 


Some of Nature’s Wonders. 

The human body has 240 bones. 

The musical scale was invented in 1022. 

Man’s heart beats 92,160 times in a day. 

A salmon has been known to produce 10,000,000 eggs. Some 
female spiders produce 2,000 eggs. A queen bee produces 100,- 
000 eggs in a season. 

There are 9,060 cells in a square foot of honeycomb. 

It requires 2,300 silk worms to produce one pound of silk. 

It would take 27,600 spiders to produce one pound of web. 

231 



LEGAL ADVICE 


B LACKSTONE defines law as the rules of human action 
or conduct, but what is commonly understood by the 
term is the civil or municipal regulations of a nation as 
applied to a particular country. The forms of law which gov¬ 
ern civil contracts and business intercourse are distinguished as 
statute and common. Statute law is the written law of the land, 
as enacted by State or national legislative bodies. The com¬ 
mon law is grounded on the general customs of England, and 
includes the law of nature, the law of God, the principles and 
maxims of the law and the decisions of the superior courts. It 
overrides both the canon and the civil law where they go be¬ 
yond or are inconsistent with it. 

To the man involved in litigation the best advice is to go to 
the best lawyer he can find. But an ounce of prevention is 
worth a pound of cure, and the purpose of the following pages is 
to furnish the ounce of prevention. Knowledge is power in 
nothing sp much as in business law, especially since the law pre¬ 
sumes that no man is ignorant of the law. 


Business Law in Brief. 

Ignorance of the law excuses no one. 

It is a fraud to conceal a fraud. 

The law compels no one to do impossibilities. 

An agreement without consideration is void. 

Signatures made with a lead pencil are good in law. 

A receipt for money paid is not legally conclusive. 

The act of one partner binds all the others. 

The seal of a party to a written contract imports consider¬ 
ation. 

A contract made with a minor cannot be enforced against 
him. A note made by a minor is void. 

A contract made with a lunatic is void. 

A contract made on a Sunday is void. 

Principals are liable for the acts of their agents. 

Agents are liable to their principals for errors. 

Each individual in a partnership is liable for the whole amount 
of the debts of the firm. 

A note which does not state on its face that it bears interest, 
will bear interest only after due. 

A lease of land for a longer term than one year is void unless 
in writing. 

An indorser of a note is exempt from liability if notice of its 
dishonor is not mailed or served within twenty-four hours of its 
non-payment. 

In case of the death of the principal maker of a note the holder 

232 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


is not required to notify a surety that the note is not paid, before 
the settlement of the maker’s estate. 

Notes obtained by fraud, or made by an intoxicated person, 
are not collectible. 

If no time of payment is specified in a note it is payable on 
demand. 

An indorser can avoid liability by writing “without recourse” 
beneath his signature. 

A check indorsed by the payee is evidence of payment in the 
drawer’s hands. 

An outlawed debt is revived should the debtor make a partial 
payment. 

Want of consideration—a common defense interposed to the 
payment of negotiable paper—is a good defense between the 
original parties to the paper ; but after it has been transferred 
before maturity to an innocent holder for value it is not a de¬ 
fense. 

Negotiable paper, payable to bearer or indorsed in blank, 
which has been stolen or lost, cannot be collected by the thief 
or finder, but a holder who receives it in good faith before ma¬ 
turity, for value, can hold it against the owner’s claims at the 
time it was lost. 

Sometimes the holder of paper has the right to demand pay¬ 
ment before maturity ; for instance, w r hen a draft has been pro¬ 
tested for non-acceptance and the proper notices served, the 
holder may at once proceed against the drawer and indorsers. 

If a note or draft is to be paid in the State where it is made, 
the contract will be governed by the laws of that State. When 
negotiable paper is payable in a State other than that in which 
it is made, the laws of that State will govern it. Marriage con¬ 
tracts, if valid where they are made, are valid everywhere. 
Contracts relating to personal property are governed by the laws 
of the place where made, except those relating to real estate, 
which are governed by the laws of the place where the land is 
situated. 

If negotiable paper, pledged to a bank as security for the 
payment of a loan or debt, falls due, and the bank fails to de¬ 
mand payment and have it protested when dishonored, the bank 
is liable to the owner for the full amount of the paper. 


Agreements and Contracts. 

A contract or agreement is where a promise is made on one 
side and assented to on the other, or where two or more per¬ 
sons enter into engagement with each other by a promise on 
either side. In a written contract assent is proven by the signa¬ 
ture or mark. In verbal agreements it may be given by a word 

233 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


or a nod, by shaking of hands, or by a sign. The old saw, 
“Silence gives consent,” is often upheld in law. 

The conditions of a contract, as applying to individuals, are: 
i. Age; 2. Rationality; and 3, as to Corporations, the posses¬ 
sion of general or special statutory powers. 

Persons under age are incompetent to make contracts, except 
under certain limitations. Generally such persons are incapa¬ 
ble of making binding contracts. 

As to rationality, the general principle of law is that all 
persons not rendered incompetent by personal disability, or by 
considerations of public policy, are capable of making a contract. 

Corporations have powers to make contracts strictly within the 
limits prescribed by their charters, or by special or general statute. 

The first step toward a contract is the proposition or offer, 
which may be withdrawn at any time before it is agreed to. 
When the proposition is verbal, and no time is specified, it is not 
binding unless accepted at once. To give one the option or re¬ 
fusal of property at a specified price, is simply to give him a cer¬ 
tain time to make up his mind whether he will buy the property 
or not/ To make the option binding he must accept within the 
time named. The party giving the option has the right to with¬ 
draw it, and sell the property to another, at any time previous to 
its acceptance, if the offer is gratuitous, and there is no consid¬ 
eration to support it. 

If a letter of acceptance is mailed, and immediately after a 
letter withdrawing the offer is received, the contract is binding. 
An acceptance takes effect from the time it is mailed, not from 
the time it is received ; it must, however, be in accordance with 
the original proposition, for any new matter introduced would 
constitute a new offer. When the offer is accepted, either ver¬ 
bally or in writing, it is an express assent, and is binding. 

A contract made under a mistake of law is not void. Every¬ 
body is presumed to know the law. This, however, applies only 
to contracts permitted by law and clear of fraud. 

A refusal of an offer cannot be retracted without the consent 
of the second party. Once a proposition is refused, the matter 
is ended. And no one has the right to accept an offer except 
the person to whom it was made. 

The consideration is the reason or thing for which the parties 
bind themselves in the contract, and it is either a benefit to the 
promisor or an injury to the other party. Considerations are 
technically divided into valuable and good , and it sometimes 
happens that the consideration need not be expressed, but is im¬ 
plied. A valuable consideration is either money or property or 
service to be given, or some injury to be endured. A promise 
to marry is considered a valuable consideration. A good con- 

234 


LEGAL ADVICE . 


sideration means that the contract is entered into because of con¬ 
sanguinity or affection, which will support the contract when 
executed, but will not support an action to enforce an executory 
contract. Whether a consideration is sufficient or not is tested 
by its being a benefit to the promisor or an injury to the other 
party. If it has a legal value, it makes no difference how small 
that value may be. The promisor need not always be benefited, 
as, for instance, the indorser of a note, who is liable although he 
gets no benefit. But if a person promise to do something him¬ 
self for which no consideration is to be received, there is no 
cause of action for breach of the contract. 

There are several causes which void contracts, first among 
which is fraud. Fraud is defined to be “every kind of artifice 
employed by one person for the purpose of willfully deceiving 
another to his injury.” No fraudulent contract will stand in law 
or in equity. The party upon whom the fraud has been prac¬ 
ticed must void the contract as soon as he discovers the fraud, 
for if he goes on after having knowledge of the fraud he cannot 
afterwards avoid it. But the one who perpetrates the fraud 
cannot plead that ground for voiding it. Contracts in restraint 
of trade are void, as also are contracts in opposition to public 
policy, impeding the course of justice, in restraint of marriage, 
contrary to the insolvent acts, or for immoral purposes. Any 
violation of the essential requisites of a contract, or the omission 
of an essential requisite, will void it. 

DON’T enter into an agreement on a Sunday unless it is rati¬ 
fied on a week day. 

DON’T make a contract with a person of unsound mind or 
under the influence of liquor, or otherwise under restraint of 
liberty, mind or body. Use caution in making contracts with 
an illiterate, blind or deaf and dumb person, and see to it that 
witnesses are present. 

DON’T put a forced construction on a contract—the intent of 
the parties is a contract. 

DON’T suppose that you can withdraw a proposition made in 
writing and sent by mail after the party to whom it was made 
has mailed an unconditional acceptance. 

DON’T suppose that a conditional acceptance of a proposition 
is binding on the party making the proposition. 

DON’T forget that the courts will construe a contract ac¬ 
cording to the law prevailing where it was made. 

DON’T forget that the law says, “no consideration, no con¬ 
tract,” and that the courts will not enforce a contract which is 
too severe in its provisions. 

DON’T sign an agreement unless you have carefully weighed 
its provisions, which should all be fixed and certain. 

235 



Notes and Negotiable Paper. 

The superstructure of business as it exists to-day rests on the 
broad foundation of confidence—the result of what may be called 
the evolution of commerce, and the principal stages in this evo¬ 
lution are an interesting study. First there was only barter in 
kind, as still practiced among savages—for example, the ex¬ 
change of a bushel of corn for a handful of arrow-heads. Then 
came the introduction of money as a medium of exchange ; and 
to-day we have the substitution of negotiable paper as docu¬ 
mentary evidence of indebtedness, including promissory notes, 
due bills, drafts, checks, certificates of deposit, bills of exchange, 
bank bills, treasury notes (greenbacks), and all other evidences 
of debt, the ownership of which may be transferred from one 
person to another. 

The mere acknowledgment of debt is not sufficient to make 
negotiable paper ; the promise of payment or an order on some 
one to pay is indispensable. This promise must be for money 
only. The amount must be exactly specified. The title must 
be transferable. This feature must be visible on the face of the 
paper by the use of such words as “bearer” or “order.” In some 
of the States peculiar phrases are ordered by statute, as “Payable 

without defalcation or discount,” or “Payable at-,” naming 

the bank or office. 

A written agreement, signed by one person, to pay another, at 
a fixed time, a stated sum of money, is a promissory note. It 
becomes negotiable by being made payable to an order on some 
one or to bearer. As it is a contract, a consideration is one of 
its essential elements. Yet, although it be void as between the 
two first parties, being negotiable knd coming into the hands of 
another person who gives value for it, not knowing of its defect, 
it has full force and may be collected. 

The date is of great consequence. In computing time, the day 
of date is not counted, but it is the fixed point beginning the 
time at the end of which payment must be made. Omission of 
the date does not destroy a note, but the holder must prove to 
the time of its making. The promise to pay must be precise as 
to time which the note is to run. It must be at a fixed period, 
or conditional upon the occurrence of something certain to hap¬ 
pen, as “at sight,” “five days after sight,” “on demand,” “three 
months after date,” “ten days after the death of John Doe.” The 
time not being specified, the note is considered “payable on de¬ 
mand.” 

The maker, the person who promises and whose signature the 
note bears, must be competent. Insane people and idiots are 
naturally , and aliens, minors and married women may be legally , 
incompetent. The maker is responsible and binds himself to 
pay the amount stated on the note at its maturity. He need not 

236 



LEGAL ADVICE . 


bay it before it becomes due, but should he do so and neglect to 
cancel the note, he would be again responsible if any other per* 
san, without knowledge of such payment, acquired it for value 
before maturity. Even a receipt for payment from the first 
payee would not stand good against the subsequent holder. 

The payee is the person in whose favor the note is drawn— 
the legal holder, the person to whom the money must be paid. 
When a note is made payable simply to bearer, without naming 
the payee, any one holding the note honestly may collect. 

A subsequent party, one who comes into possession of the note 
after the original holder, has a better claim than the first one, 
for the reason that between the maker and the first payee there 
may have been, in the contract, some understanding or condition 
militating against the payment when it would become due, but 
the third person, knowing nothing of this, gives his value and 
receives the note. The law will always sustain the subsequent 
party. 

The indorser is held responsible if the maker fails to pay when 
the note arrives at maturity. A note payable to order must be 
indorsed by a holder upon passing it to another, and, as value 
has been given each time, the last holder will look to his next 
preceding one and to all the others. 

A note, being on deposit as collateral security, becoming due, 
the temporary holder is the payee and must collect. 

An indorsement is a writing across the back of the note, which 
makes the writer responsible for the amount of the note. There 
are various forms of indorsement. 

1. In blank , the indorser simply writing his name on the back 
of the note. 

2. General , or in full , the indorser writing above his signa¬ 
ture “Pay-” or “Pay-or order." 

3. Qualified, the words “without recourse” being used after 
the name of the payee in the indorsement. 

4. Conditional , a condition being stated, as: “Pay-, 

unless payment forbidden before maturity.” 

5. Restrictive , as: “Pay-only.” 

The blank indorsement, the full indorsement and the general 
indorsement are practically the same ; each entitles the holder 
of the note to the money, and to look to the indorser for pay¬ 
ment if the maker of the note defaults. It has even been held 
that in a general indorsement the holder had the right to fill in 
the words “or order” if he saw fit. The qualified indorsement 
releases the indorser from any liability in case the maker of the 
note defaults. The conditional and restrictive indorsement are 
used only in special cases. Each indorser is severally and collect¬ 
ively liable for the whole amount of the note indorsed if it is 

237 







LEGAL ADVICE . 

dishonored, provided it is duly protested and notice given tc 
each. The indorser looks to the man who indorsed it before 
him, and so back to the original maker of the note. As soon as 
a note is protested, it is vitally necessary that notice should be 
sent to each person interested at once. 

TO BE ON THE SAFE SIDE, it is well to see to it that 
any note offered for negotiation— 

Is dated correctly; 

Specifies the amount of money to be paid; 

Names the person to whom ft is to be paid; 

Includes the words “or order” after the name of the payee, if 
it is desired to make the note negotiable; 

Appoints a place where the payment is to be made; 

States that the note is made “for value received;” 

And is signed by the maker or his duly authorized representa¬ 
tive. 

In some States phrases are required in the body of the note, 
such as, “without defalcation or discount ;” but, as a general 
thing, that fact is understood without the statement. 


Partnership. 

The general rule is that every person of sound mind, and not 
otherwise restrained by law, may enter into a contract of part¬ 
nership. 

There are several kinds of partners : 

1. Ostensible partners, or those whose names are made public 
as partners, and who in reality are such, and who take all the 
benefits and risks. 

2. Nominal partners, or those who appear before the public 
as partners, but who have no real interest in the business. 

3- Dormant , or silent partners, or those whose names are 
not known or do not appear as partners, but who, nevertheless, 
have an interest in the business. 

4. Special , or limited partners, or those who are interested in 

the business only to the amount of the capital they have invested 
in it. x 

5. General partners, who manage the business, while the 
capital, either in whole or in part, is supplied by a special part¬ 
ner or partners. They are liable for all the debts and contracts 
of the firm. 

A nominal partner renders himself liable for all the debts and 
contracts of the firm. 

A dormant partner, if it becomes known that he has an inter¬ 
est, whether creditors trusted the firm on his account or not, be¬ 
comes liable equally with the other partners. 

The regulations concerning special or limited partnerships, in 

238 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


any particular State where recognized, are to be found in the 
statutes of such State ; and strict compliance with the statutes 
is necessary in order to avoid incurring the responsibilities at¬ 
taching to the position of general partner. 

A. person who lends his name as a partner, or who suffers his 
name to continue in the firm after he has actually ceased to be a 
partner thereof, is still responsible to third persons as a partner. 

A. partner may buy and sell partnership effects ; make con¬ 
tracts in reference to the business of the firm ; pay and receive 
money ; draw, and indorse, and accept bills and notes ; and all 
acts of such a nature, even though they be upon his own private 
account, will bind the other partners, if connected with matters 
apparently having reference to the business of the firm, and 
transacted with other parties ignorant of the fact that such deal¬ 
ings are for the particular partner’s private account. The repre¬ 
sentation or misrepresentation of any fact made in any partner¬ 
ship transaction by one partner, or the commission of any fraud 
in such transaction, will bind the entire firm, even though the 
other partners may have no connection with, or knowledge of 
the same. 

If a partner sign his individual name to negotiable paper, all 
the partners are bound thereby, if such paper appear on its face 
to be on partnership account. If negotiable paper of a firm be 
given by one partner on his private account, and in the course of 
its circulation pass into the hands of a bona fide holder for value, 
without notice or knowledge of the fact attending its creation, 
the partnership is bound thereby. 

One partner cannot bind the firm by deed, though he may by 
deed execute an ordinary release of a debt due the partnership. 

If no time be fixed in articles of copartnership for the com¬ 
mencement thereof, it is presumed to commence from the date 
and execution of the articles. If no precise period is mentioned 
for continuance, a partner may withdraw at any time, and dis¬ 
solve such partnership at his pleasure ; and even if a definite 
period be agreed upon, a partner may, by giving notice, dissolve 
the partnership as to all capacity of the firm to bind him by con¬ 
tracts thereafter made. The withdrawing partner subjects 
himself, however, to a claim for damages by reason of his 
breach of the covenant. 

The death of a partner dissolves the partnership, unless there 
be an express stipulation that, in such an event, the representa¬ 
tives of the deceased partner may continue the business in con¬ 
nection with the survivors, for the benefit of the widow and 
children. 

A partnership is dissolved by operation of law ; by a voluntary 
and bona fide assignment by any partner of his interest therein ; 

239 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


by the bankruptcy or death of any of the partners ; or by a wa* 
between the countries of which the partners are subjects. 

Immediately after a dissolution, notice of the same should be 
published in the papers, and a special notice sent to every person 
who has had dealings with the firm. If these precautions be not 
taken, each partner will still continue liable for the acts of tiie 
others to all persons who have had no notice of such dissolution. 

DON’T enter into a partnership without carefully drawn 
articles, and don’t sign the articles until the partnership funds 
are on deposit. 

DON’T forget that a partner may be called upon to make 
good partnership losses with his individual property, and that 
each partner may be held for the acts of the other partners as 
well as for his own. 

DON’T enter a firm already established unless you are will¬ 
ing to become responsible for its debts. 

DON’T do anything out of the usual run of business without 
the consent of your partners. 

DON’T mix private matters with partnership affairs, and 
don’t continue in a partnership where trust and confidence are 
lacking. 

DON’T continue a partnership after expiration of articles, 
and do not make any change without due public notice. 

DON’T dissolve a partnership without due public notice or 
without designating a member to settle all matters outstanding. 


Agency and Attorney. 

By agency is meant the substitution of one person by and for 
another, the former to transact business for the latter. An 
agency may be established by implication —an express agree¬ 
ment with a person that he is to become the agent of another 
not being necessary—or verbally , or by ■writing . A verbal crea¬ 
tion of agency suffices to authorize the agent to make a contract 
even in cases where such contract must be in writing. 

Agency is of three kinds : special, general and professional. 
A special agency is an authority exercised for a special purpose. 
If a special agent axceed the limits of his authority, his principal 
is not bound by his acts. 

A general agency authorizes the transaction of all business of 
a particular kind, or growing out of a particular employment. 
The principal will be bound by the acts of a general agent, 
though the latter act contrary to private instructions, provided 
he keep, at the same time, within the general limits of his au¬ 
thority. 

Professional agents are those licensed by the proper authority 
to transact certain kinds of business for a compensation. The 

240 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


following are among this class of agents : i. Attorneys. 2. 
Brokers. 3. Factors. 4. Auctioneers. 5. Masters of Ships. 

In regard to the subject of an agency, the general rule is, that 
whatever a man may do in his own right he may also transact 
through another. Things of a personal nature, implying personal 
confidence on the part of the person possessing them, cannot be 
delegated. 

Infants, married women, lunatics, idiots, aliens, belligerents, 
and persons incapable of making legal contracts, cannot act as 
principals in the appointment of agents. Infants and married 
women may, however, become principals in certain cases. 

Agency may be terminated in two ways : (1) by the act of 
the principal or agent ; (2) by operation of law. In the latter 
case, the termination of the agency is effected by lapse of time, 
by completion of the subject-matter of the agency, by the ex¬ 
tinction of the subject-matter, or by the insanity, bankruptcy or 
death of either party. 

DON’T do through another what would be illegal for you to 
do yourself. 

DON’T lose any time in repudiating illegal acts of your agent. 

DON’T make an illegal act of your agent’s your own by ac¬ 
cepting the benefit thereof. 

DON’T transact business through an agent unless he can 
show that he stands in his principal’s stead in the matter in 
hand. 

DON’T, as agent, appoint sub-agents without the consent of 
your principal. 

DON’T go beyond your authority in an agency unless you 
are willing to become personally responsible. 

DON’T accept an agency, or act as an attorney in fact, in com¬ 
plicated matters unless your powers are clearly defined in writing. 

Landlord and Tenant. 

Leases for one year or less need no written agreement. Leases 
for more than a year must be in writing ; if for life, signed, 
sealed, and witnessed in the same manner as any other import¬ 
ant document. 

Leases for over three years must be recorded. No particular 
form is necessary. 

If no agreement in writing for more than a year can be pro¬ 
duced, the tenant holds the property from year to year at the 
will of the landlord. If there is no agreement as to time, the 
tenant as a rule holds from year to year. 

A tenancy at will may be terminated by giving the tenant one 
month’s notice in writing, requiring him to remove from the 
premises occupied. 


241 



LEGAL ADVICE. 

A tenant is not responsible for taxes, unless it is so stated in 
the lease. 

The tenant may underlet as much of the property as he de¬ 
sires, unless it is expressly forbidden in the lease. Tenants at 
will cannot underlet. 

A married woman cannot lease her property under the com¬ 
mon law, but this prohibition is removed by statute in most of 
the States. A husband cannot make a lease which will bind his 
wife’s property after his death. 

A lease made by a minor is not binding after the minor has 
attained his majority. It binds the lessee, however, unless the 
minor should release him. Should the minor receive rent after 
attaining his majority, the lease will be thereby ratified. A lease 
given by a guardian will not extend beyond the majority of the 
ward. 

A new lease renders void a former lease. 

In case there are no writings, the tenancy begins from the day 
possession is taken ; where there are writings and the time of 
commencement is not stated, the tenancy will be held to com¬ 
mence from the date of said writings. 

Leases on mortgaged property, whereon the mortgage was 
given prior to the lease, terminate when the mortgage is fore¬ 
closed. 

Where a tenant assigns his lease, even with the landlord’s con¬ 
sent, he will remain liable for the rent unless his lease is sur¬ 
rendered or cancelled. 

There are many special features of the law of landlord and 
tenant in relation to agricultural tenancy. Generally an outgo¬ 
ing tenant cannot sell or take away the manure. A tenant 
whose estate has terminated by an uncertain event which he 
could neither foresee nor control is entitled to the annual crop 
which he sowed while his estate continued, by the law of emble¬ 
ments. He may also, in certain cases, take the emblements or 
annual profits of the land after his tenancy has ended, and, 
unless restricted by some stipulation to the contrary, may re¬ 
move such fixtures as he has erected during his occupation for 
convenience, profit or comfort; for, in general, what a tenant 
has added he may remove, if he can do so without injury to the 
premises, unless he has actually built it in so as to make it an 
integral part of what was there originally. 

The following are immovable fixtures : Agricultural erec¬ 
tions, fold-yard walls, cart house, barns fixed in the ground, 
beast house, carpenter shop, fuel house, pigeon house, pineries 
substantially fixed, wagon house, box borders not belonging to a 
gardener by trade, flowers, trees, hedges, ale-house bar, dress¬ 
ers, partitions, locks and keys, benches affixed to the house, 

242 


LEGAL ADVICE . 


statue erected as an ornament to grounds, sun dial, chimney 
piece not ornamental, closets affixed to the house, conduits, 
conservatory, substantially affixed, doors, fruit trees if a 
tenant be not a nurseryman by trade, glass windows, hearths, 
millstones, looms substantially affixed to the floor of a factory, 
threshing machines fixed by bolts and screws to posts let into 
the ground. 

DON’T occupy premises until a written lease is in your pos¬ 
session, and don’t depend on promises of a landlord unless they 
are part of such lease. 

DON’T accept a married woman as tenant unless the law of 
the State permit her to make an executory contract. 

DON’T think that you can legally eject sub-tenants unless 
you have given them notice of the tenant’s forfeiture of his lease. 

DON’T make such improvements in premises occupied by 
you as the law would regard as immovable fixtures, unless you 
are willing to turn them over to the landlord when your lease 
expires. A building erected on' foundations sunk into the ground 
would become part of the realty and thus belong to the landlord. 

DON’T think, however, that you have no right to remove 
trade fixtures erected by you. 

DON’T accept less than thirty days’ notice when you rent by 
the month. 

DON’T forget that where premises are let for illegal use the 
law will not aid you in collecting arrears for rent. 


Law Relating to Farms, Etc. 

In a deed to agricultural property the boundaries should be 
clearly determined. The question, What does the farmer get? is 
answered by these boundaries, and the deed to a farm always in¬ 
cludes the dwelling houses, barns and other improvements 
thereon belonging to the grantor, even though these are not 
mentioned. It also conveys all the fences standing on the farm, 
but all might not think it also included the fencing-stuff, posts, 
rails, etc., which had once been used in the fence, but had been 
taken down and piled up for future use again in the same place. But 
new fencing material, just bought, and never attached to the 
soil, would not pass. So piles of hop poles, stored aw^y, if once 
used on the land, and intended to be again so used, have been 
considered a part of it, but loose boards or scaffold poles, merely 
laid across the beams of a barn and never fastened to it, would 
not be, and the seller of the farm might take them away. Stand¬ 
ing trees, of course, also pass, as part of the land; so do trees 
blown down or cut down, and still left in the woods where they 
fell, but not if cut and corded up for sale; the wood has then be¬ 
come personal property. 


243 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


If there be any manure in the barnyard or in the compost heap 
on the field, ready for immediate use the buyer ordinarily, in 
the absence of any contrary agreement, takes that also as be¬ 
longing to the farm, though it might not be so if the owner had 
previously sold it to some other party, and had collected it to¬ 
gether in a heap by itself, for such an act might be a technical 
severance from the soil, and so convert real into personal es¬ 
tate; and even a lessee of a farm could take away the manure 
made on the place while he was in occupation. Growing crops 
also pass by the deed of a farm unless they are expressly re¬ 
served, and when it is not intended to convey those it should be 
so stated in the deed itself; a mere oral agreement to that effect 
would not be, in most States, valid in law. Another mode is to 
stipulate that possession is not to be given until some future day, 
in which case the crops or manures may be removed before that 
time. 

An adjoining road is, to its middle, owned by the farmer 
whose land is bound, unless there are reservations to the con¬ 
trary in the. deeds through which he derives title. But this own¬ 
ership is subject to the right of the public to the use of the 
road. 

If a tree grows so as to come over the land of a neighbor, the 
latter may cut away the parts which so come over, for he owns 
his land and all that is above or below it. If it be a fruit tree he 
may cut every branch or twig which comes over his land, but he 
cannot touch the fruit which falls to the land. The owner of 
the tree may enter peaceably upon the land of the neighbor 
and take up the branches and fruit. 


Lien Laws. 

Any one who, as contractor, sub-contractor or laborer, per¬ 
forms any work, or furnishes any materials, in pursuance of, or 
in conformity with, any agreement or contract with the owner, 
lessee, agent or one in possession of the property, toward the 
erection, altering, improving or repairing of any building, shall 
have a lien for the value of such labor or materials on the build¬ 
ing or land on which it stands to the extent of the right, title 
and interest of the owner, lessee or person in possession at the 
time of the claimant’s filing his notice with the clerk of the 
county court. Such lien is called a mechanic’s lien. 

The notice should be filed within thirty days after comple¬ 
tion of the work or the furnishing of the materials, and should 
state the residence of the claimant, the amount claimed, from 
whom due, when due, and to whom due, the name of the person 
against whom claimed, the name of the owner, lessee or person 
in possession of the premises, with a brief description of the latter. 

244 



an 


LEGAL ADVICE. 

Liens cease in one year after the filing of the notice, unless 
action is begun, or the lien is continued by an order of court. 

The following classes of persons are generally entitled to lien: 
i. Bailees, who may perform labor and services, on the thing 
bailed, at the request of the bailor. 2. Innkeepers, upon the 
baggage of guests they have accommodated. 3. Common carri¬ 
ers, upon goods carried, for the amount of their freight and dis¬ 
bursements. 4. Vendors, on the goods sold for payment of the 
price where no credit has been expressly promised or implied. 
5. Agents, upon goods of their principals, for advancements for 
the benefit of the latter. 6. All persons are entitled to the 
right of lien who are compelled by law to receive property and 
bestow labor or expense on the same. 

The right of lien may be waived: 1. By express contract. 2. 
By neglect. 3. By new agreement. 4. By allowing change of 
possession. 5. By surrendering possession. 

The manner of the enforcement of a lien, whether it be an inn¬ 
keeper’s, agent’s, carrier’s, factor’s, etc., depends wholly upon the 
nature and character of the lien. 

DON’T purchase real estate unless the records have been 
thoroughly searched for all liens known to the law, or until all 
notices of action against the same have been discharged. 

DON’T think that you have no right to sell perishable property 
on which you have a lien. Your lien will attach to the proceeds. 

DON’T foreclose a lien without proper notice. 

DON’T make payments to a contractor before you have full 
knowledge of all liens filed. 

DON’T forget that liens take precedence according to pri¬ 
ority, and that interest always runs on a judgment. 


Deeds—Transfer of Property. 

A deed is a writing by which lands, tenements or heredita¬ 
ments are conveyed, sealed and delivered. It must be written or 
printed on parchment or paper; the parties must be competent 
to contract; there must be a proper object to grant; a sufficient 
consideration; an agreement properly declared; if desired, it 
must have been read to the party executing it; it must be signed 
and sealed; attested by witnesses, in the absence of any statute 
regulation to the contrary; properly acknowledged before a 
competent officer; and recorded within the time and in the office 
prescribed by the State wherein executed. 

The maker of a deed is the grantor; the party to whom it is 
delivered, the grantee. If the grantor have a wife, she must, in 
the absence of a statute to the contrary, sign and acknowledge 
the deed; otherwise, after the husband’s death, she may claim 
the use of one-third, during her life. 

245 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


By a general "warranty deed the grantor covenants to insure the 
lands against all persons whatsoever; by a special iwarranty deed 
he warrants only against himself and those claiming under him. 
In deeds made by executors, administrators or guardians there is 
generally no warranty. A quit-claim deed releases all the interest 
which the grantor has in the land, whatever it may be. 

A deed of trtist is given to a person called a trustee, to hold in 
fee simple, or otherwise, for the use of some other person who is 
entitled to the proceeds, profits or use. 

A deed may be made void by alterations made in it after its 
execution; by the disagreement of the parties whose concurrence 
is necessary; or by the judgment of a competent tribunal. 

Interlineations or erasures in a deed, made before signing, 
should be mentioned in a note, and witnessed in proper form. 
After the acknowledgment of a deed the parties have no right to 
make the slightest alteration. An alteration of a deed after 
execution, if made in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. If 
altered before delivery, such alteration destroys the deed as to 
the party altering it. 

Abstracts of title are brief accounts of all the deeds upon 
which titles rest, and judgments and instruments affecting such 
titles. 

The evidences of title are usually conveyances, wills, orders 
or decrees of courts, judgments, judicial sales, sales by offi¬ 
cers appointed by law. acts of the Legislature and of Con¬ 
gress. 

DON’T accept a deed unless all the following conditions are 
complied with: i. It must be signed, sealed and witnessed. 2. 
Interlineations must be mentioned in the certificate of acknowl¬ 
edgment. 3. All the partners must join in a deed from a part¬ 
nership. 4. A deed from a corporation should bear the corpo¬ 
rate seal and be signed by officers designated in the resolution 
of the directors authorizing it. 5. A deed from a married 
woman should be joined in by the husband. 6. A deed from an 
executor should recite his power of sale. 7. The consideration 
must be expressed. 

DON’T deed property to your wife direct. A deed to your 
wife does not cut off obligations contracted previously. 

DON’T pay consideration money on a conveyance of real 
estate until the record has been searched to the moment of pass¬ 
ing title, and unless you know of your own knowledge that no 
judgments, mortgages or tax liens are outstanding against the 
property. 

DON’T delay in having a deed or mortgage recorded. 

DON’T attempt to give a better title than you have your¬ 
self. 


246 


Mortgages. 

A mortgage is a conveyance of property, either real or per¬ 
sonal, to secure payment of a debt. When the debt is paid the 
mortgage becomes void and of no value. In real estate Mort¬ 
gages the person giving the mortgage retains possession of the 
property, receives all the debts and other profits, and pays all 
taxes and other expenses. The instrument must be acknowl¬ 
edged, like a deed, before a proper public officer, and recorded in 
the office of the county clerk or recorder, or whatever officer’s 
duty it is to record such instruments. All mortgages must con¬ 
tain a redemption clause and must be signed and sealed. The 
time when the debt becomes due, to secure which the mortgage is 
given, must be plainly set forth and the property conveyed 
must be clearly described, located and scheduled. 

Some mortgages contain a clause permitting the sale of the 
property without decree of court when a default is made in the 
payment either of the principal sum or the interest. 

A foreclosure is a statement that the property is forfeited and 
must be sold. 

When a mortgage is assigned to another person, it must be 
for a valuable consideration; and the note or notes which it was 
given to secure must be given at the same time. 

If the mortgaged property, when foreclosed and brought to 
sale, brings more money than is needed to satisfy the debt, inter¬ 
est and costs, the surplus must be paid to the mortgagor. 

Satisfaction of mortgages upon real or personal property may 
be either— 

1. By an entry upon the margin of the record thereof, signed by 
the mortgagee or his attorney, assignee or personal representa¬ 
tive, acknowledging the satisfaction of the mortgage, in the 
presence of the recording officer; or — 

2. By a receipt indorsed upon the mortgage, signed by the 
mortgagee, his agent or attorney, which receipt may be entered 
upon the margin of the record; or — 

3. It may be discharged upon the record thereof whenever 
there is presented to the proper officer an instrument acknowl¬ 
edging the satisfaction of such mortgage, executed by the mort¬ 
gagee, his duly authorized attorney in fact, assignee or personal 
representative, and acknowledged in the same manner as other 
instruments affecting real estate. 

Chattel mortgages are mortgages on personal property. Most 
of the rules applicable to mortgages on real estate apply also to 
those on personal property, though in some States there are 
laws regulating personal mortgages. Any instrument will 
answer the purpose of a chattel mortgage which would answer 
as a bill of sale, with a clause attached providing for the avoid¬ 
ance of the mortgage when the debt is paid. 

A chattel mortgage will not cover property subsequently ac- 

247 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


quired by the mortgagor. Mortgages of personal property 
should contain a clause providing for the equity of redemption.' 
A mortgagee may sell or transfer his mortgage to another 
party for a consideration, but such property cannot be seized or 
sold until the expiration of the period for which the mortgage 
was given. Mortgages given with intent to defraud creditors 
are void. 

DON’T lose any time in having a mortgage properly 
recorded. 

DON’T pay installments on chattel mortgages unless the 
same are indorsed thereon. 

DON’T lose sight of the fact that a chattel mortgage is a con¬ 
ditional bill of sale. 

DON’T accept a chattel mortgage the term whereof is for 
more than a year. 

DON’T neglect to have a chattel mortgage signed, sealed and 
witnessed, and don’t fail to see to it that the schedule contains 
every article embraced under it. 

DON’T fail to see to it that goods or chattels mortgaged to 
you are properly insured. 

DON’T suppose that a chattel mortgage is valid when the 
debt to be secured by it is not. 

DON’T give a chattel mortgage payable on demand unless 
you are prepared to forfeit the chattels at any moment. 

DON’T think that destruction by fire or otherwise of the 
chattels mortgaged wipes out the debt. 

DON’T forget that foreclosure in the case of a chattel mort¬ 
gage is unnecessary except to cut off claims of other creditors. 


Assignments. 

An assignment is a transfer of property made in writing. In 
effect it is passing to another person all of one’s title or interest 
in any sort of real or personal property, rights, actions or 
estates. However, some things are not assignable; an officer’s 
pay or commission, a judge’s salary, fishing claims, Government 
bounties, or claims arising out of frauds or torts. Personal 
trusts cannot be assigned, as a guardianship or the right of a 
master in his apprentice. 

Unlike many other legal devices the holder of an assignment 
is not bound to show that a valuable consideration was given. 
The owner of a cause of action may give it away if he pleases, 
and in the positive absence of evidence to the contrary the 
court will presume that the assignment was for a sufficient con¬ 
sideration. 

Proof will be called for only when it appears that the assign¬ 
ment was a mere sham or fraudulent. No formality is required 

248 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


by law in an assignment. Any instrument between the con¬ 
tracting parties which goes to show their intention to pass the 
property from one to another will be sufficient. It may be 
proved, for instance, by the payee of a note, that he indorsed (or 
delivered without indorsement) the note to the assignee, and 
this is sufficient evidence of assignment. 

In every assignment of an instrument, even not negotiable, 
the assignee impliedly warrants the validity of the instrument 
and the obligation of the third party to pay it. He warrants 
that there is no legal defense against its collection arising out of 
his connection with the parties; that all parties were legally 
able to contract, and that the amount is unpaid. 

An assignment carries with it all the collateral securities and 
guaranties of the original debt, even though they are not men¬ 
tioned in the instrument. 

Where property is assigned for the benefit of creditors, its act¬ 
ual transfer to the assignee must be made immediately. When 
an assignment is made under the common law, the assignor may 
prefer certain creditors; but in a State where this sort of an as¬ 
signment is governed by statute, no preference can be shown. 
An assignment for the benefit of creditors covers all of the as¬ 
signor’s property, wherever or whatever it may be, that is not 
exempt from execution. 

When insured property is sold the insurance policy should be 
assigned. This can only be done with the consent of the in¬ 
surer, and that consent must be at once obtained. 

Correct schedules of the property assigned should accompany 
and be attached to every assignment. 

Inns, Hotels and Boarding-houses. 

An inn, or hotel, is a place of entertainment for travelers. If 
an innkeeper opens his house for travelers, it is an implied en¬ 
gagement to entertain all persons who travel that way, and upon 
this universal assumption an action will lie against him tor 
damages if he, without good reason, refuses to admit a trav¬ 
eler. 

Innkeepers are responsible for the safe custody of the goods of 
their guests, and can limit their liability only by an express 
agreement or special contract with their guests; but if goods are 
lost through negligence of the owner himself the innkeeper’s 
liability ceases. An innkeeper may retain the goods of his guest 
until the amount of the guest’s bill has been paid. 

A boarding-house is not an inn, nor is a coffee-house or eat¬ 
ing-room. A boarding-house keeper has no lien on the goods ot 
a boarder except by special agreement, nor is he responsible for 
their safe custody. He is liable, however, for loss caused by the 

249 



LEGAL ADVICE. 

neglig ence of his servants. An innkeeper is liable for loss with¬ 
out such negligence. - 

Bonds. 

A written instrument, admitting an obligation on the part of 
the maker to pay a certain sum of money to another specified 
person at a fixed time, for a valuable consideration, is called a 
bond. The obligor is the one giving the bond; the beneficiary is 
called the obligee. This definition applies to all bonds, but gen¬ 
erally these instruments are given to guarantee the performance 
or non-performance of certain acts by the obligor, which being 
done or left undone, as the case may be, the bond becomes void, 
but if the conditions are broken it remains in full force. As a 
rule, the bond is made out for a sum twice the amount of any 
debt which is apt to be incurred by the obligor under its con¬ 
ditions, the statement being set forth that the silm named is the 
penalty, as liquidated or settled damages, in the event of the 
failure of the obligor to carry out the conditions. 

An act of Providence, whereby the accomplishment of a bond 
is rendered impossible, relieves the obligor of all liability. 

A bond for the payment of money differs from a promissory 
note only in having a seal. 

Bills of Sale. 

A bill of sale is a formal written conveyance of personal prop¬ 
erty. If the property is delivered when sold, or if part of the 
purchase money is paid, a written instrument is not necessary to 
make the conveyance, but it is convenient evidence of the trans¬ 
fer of title. But, to protect the interests of the purchaser 
against the creditors of the seller, the bill is not sufficient of 
itself; there should also be a delivery of the property. If an act¬ 
ual and continued change of possession does not accompany 
the sale it is void as against the creditors of the seller and subse¬ 
quent purchasers and mortgagees in good faith, unless the buyer 
can show that his purchase was made in good faith, without in¬ 
tent to defraud, and that there was some good reason for leav¬ 
ing the property in the hands of the seller. 


Guaranty 

Is an assurance made by a second party that his principal will 
perform some specific act. For instance, A gives B a note, and 
C by indorsing the instrument guarantees to B that A will pav 
it at maturity. C is the guarantor. His liability is special, and 
if B renews the note when it becomes due he is no longer liable. 
A guaranty for collection is a very different thing from a guar¬ 
anty of payment. The first warrants that the money is collect- 

250 





LEGAL ADVICE. 


ible; the latter, that it will be paid at maturity. In the first case 
the party guaranteed must be able to prove that due diligence 
was employed in attempting to collect the money; in the second, 
no such proof is necessary. The only form necessary in guaran* 
teeing a note is writing one’s name across the back of it,—a pro* 
cess commonly called indorsing. 


Corporations. 

Several persons joining together for the accomplishment of 
any business or social purpose can legally organize themselves 
into a corporation, a form of partnership which combines the 
resources of all, and yet gives a limited pecuniary liability, 
amounting only to the amount of stock owned by each stock¬ 
holder. In the States, the legislature of each Commonwealth 
enjoys the power of regulating the corporations, and in the Terri¬ 
tories this power is, of course, vested in the General Government. 
The actual cost of organization amounts to something less than 
$10, most of which is in fees to the Secretary of State. When 
the stock has been subscribed a meeting is called, and each share¬ 
holder casts a vote for every share which he owns or holds a 
proxy for, for each person who is to be elected director, or he 
may give one director as many votes as the number of shares he 
is voting, multiplied by the number of directors to be elected, 
amounts to. or distribute his votes as he chooses. Thus, if he 
owns ten shares of stock and there are six directors to be elected, 
he has sixty votes, which he can give, either ten for each director, 
or twenty for each of three, or sixty for one, or in any other way 
that he sees fit, so that his whole vote will not be more than sixty 
votes. These directors meet as soon after the election as pos¬ 
sible and choose a president, vice-president, secretary and treas¬ 
urer, whereupon the corporation is ready for business. 

The law in all the States on the subject of incorporating com¬ 
panies is very similar, and the necessary forms are to be obtained 
usually from the Secretary of State. 

Wills and How to Make Them. 

Every description of property, whether real or personal, may 
be given by will. In the case of persons dying owing debts, 
however, the law gives to the exequtors sufficient of the personal 
property of the deceased to pay off all existing indebtedness, 
irrespective of the terms of the will; and where the personal 
property is not sufficient for this purpose, real property may be 
so appropriated. 

Property may be bequeathed by will to all persons, including 
married women, infants, lunatics, idiots, etc. 

Wills may be made by any person not disqualified by age or 

251 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


mental incapacitj. Generally speaking, a person must have at¬ 
tained the age of twenty-one years before he or she can make 
a valid will of lands, and the same age, in many States, is re¬ 
quired for a will of solely personal property. 

In New York males of eighteen and females of sixteen are 
competent to bequeath personal property. “Sound and disposing 
mind and memory” are always essential to the validity of any 
will. For this reason, idiots, lunatics, intoxicated persons (dur¬ 
ing intoxication), and persons of unsound or weak minds, are 
incompetent to make wills. A will procured by fraud is also 
invalid, although the testator be fully competent to make a valid 
will. All wills must be in writing, except those made by soldiers in 
active service during war, and by sailors while at sea. Such 
persons may make a verbal or nuncupative will, under certain 
restrictions, as to witnesses, etc. No particular form of words 
is required. 

A valid will must be subscribed or signed by the testator, or 
some one for him, in his presence, and at his request. The sig¬ 
nature must be affixed in the presence of each of the witnesses. 
In case the will be signed by some one for him, the testator must 
acknowledge the signature to be his own in presence of the wit¬ 
nesses. The testator must declare to each of the subscribing 
witnesses that the instrument is his “last will and testament.” 
This is of the utmost importance, and is called the “publication.” 
There must be at least two (three are required in some of the 
States) subscribing witnesses, who must act as such at the tes¬ 
tator’s request, or at the request of some one in his presence. 
The subscribing witnesses must not be beneficially interested in 
the provisions of the will. These witnesses must all sign the will 
in the presence of the testator, and (in New York and some of 
the other States) in the presence of each other. 

A codicil is an appendix annexed to the will after its execution, 
whereby the testator makes some change in, or addition to, his 
former disposition, and must be signed, published and attested 
in the same manner as the original will. 

The revocation of a will may be express or implied. Express, 
by the execution of a new and later will, or by the intentional 
destruction of the old one, or by a formal written revocation, 
signed and witnessed in the same manner as the will itself. An 
implied revocation is wrought by the subsequent marriage of the 
testator and the birth of children, or by either. 

DON’T leave anything uncertain in a will, and don’t neglect 
to declare it to be your last will and testament. 

DON’T make a will without two (better three) witnesses, none 
of whom must be interested in it. See that each witness writes 
his full name and address. 


252 


LEGAL ADVICE ; 


DON’T make a new will unless you destroy or revoke the old 
one, and don’t add a codicil unless it is executed in the same way 
as the original will. 

DON’T neglect to make a new will if you mortgage or sell 
property devised or bequeathed in a prior one. 

DON’T make a will which does not provide for children that 
may be born. 

DON’T will property to a corporation whose charter does not 
permit it to take by devise or bequest. 

DON’T fail to say “bequeath” for personal and “devise” for 
real property. 


Heirship to Property Hot Bequeathed. 

In England, where the policy is to keep landed estates undivided, 
the law of primogeniture prevails, giving to the eldest son and 
his descendants superior rights to the property. In case of de¬ 
fault, the second son and his descendants become the heirs, and 
so on. If there be only daughters, they inherit equally. 

In the United States the property would be divided among the 
heirs as follows: (i.) To the children. These, if of equal de¬ 
gree, receive the property in equal shares. If of unequal degree, 
the more remote descendants take the share that would have be¬ 
longed to their parent, if living. Thus: A, B and C are children 
of the testator, and of these B and C are living and A is dead, 
at the testator’s death. The estate, after paying all debts, will be 
divided into three equal parts, the descendants of A, together, 
receiving one-third, and B and C each another third; but in case 
A left no descendants, then B and C each will be awarded one 
half of the property. (2.) If there are no descendants the 
parents of the testator would receive the estate, the father being 
sometimes preferred to the mother. (3.) If parents are 
not living, the brothers and sisters of the testator would 
take the property, sharing equally. If one or more of the 
brothers or sisters had died, their children would receive the share 
that would have descended to their parent. (4.) Grandparents 
would be the next claimants, after which (5.) uncles and aunts, 
and after them (6.) their children, and so on. In case no heirs 
are found, the property inures to the State. 

The above principles are stated as generally recognized in the 
laws of the several States. As these laws, however, vary, full 
information can only be obtained from the statutes of the several 
States. 


Legacies and the Duties of Executors and Administrators. 

A legacy is a gift or bequest of personal property by will or 
testament. Legacies are of three kinds: General, specific and 
demonstrative. 253 




:LEGAL ADVICE. 

A general legacy does not amount to a bequest of any par¬ 
ticular portion of, or article belonging to, the personal estate of 
the testator, as distinguished from all others of the same kind; 
as a bequest of a sum of money, or a horse. 

A specific legacy is a bequest of property specifically desig¬ 
nated, so as to be definitely distinguished from the rest of the 
testator’s estate; as, a bequest of all the money contained in a 
certain box, or the horse in the testator’s stable. 

A demonstrative legacy is a bequest of a certain amount of 
money to be paid out of a particular fund; as, a bequest of $500 
to be paid out of the proceeds of the sale of certain property. 

An executor should first extinguish all the lawful debts of the 
testator, and for this purpose all the personal property may be 
applied, if necessary, even though some of it has been bequeathed 
in specific legacies. After the debts are paid, the specific legacies 
are next to be satisfied; then the demonstrative legacies; and 
lastly, the general legacies. If there be insufficient assets to 
satisfy any of the legacies in either of these three classes suc¬ 
cessively, those in the same class will be paid ratably and in 
proportion, and subsequent classes will fail entirely. 

Residuary legatees take subject to all other legacies. A resid¬ 
uary legatee is one to whom is bequeathed “all the rest, residue 
and remainder” of an estate. 

Specific and general legacies are subject to ademption; thus, if 
the testator bequeath “the horse in his stable,” and at the time of 
his death has no horse, the legacy fails entirely and is said to be 
“adeemed.” Or, if the legacy bequeaths the furniture in a cer¬ 
tain specified house, and the testator remove the furniture to 
another house, the legacy is adeemed. 

Legacies are vested, or contingent. A vested legacy is one 
where the legatee acquires an absolute present right to present 
or future enjoyment. A contingent legacy is one where the 
right of enjoyment depends upon some contingency; as, a gift to 
a child if he attains the age of twenty-one years. A cumulative 
legacy is one additional to a previous legacy contained in the 
same will. 

In New York, and several other States, a legacy given to a 
subscribing witness of a will is void. An executor may be a 
legatee. It is also provided that “no person having a husband, 
wife, child, or parent, shall bequeath to a corporation more than 
one half of his personal estate after the payment of his debts.” 

Legacies are not required to be paid in less than one year from 
the time of the testator’s death. This time is allowed to the ex¬ 
ecutor to enable him to ascertain the nature and value of the 
property, the full liabilities of the testator and to collect the 
assets. 


254 


LEGAL ADVICE. 


A legacy to an infant should not be paid except under order of 
the court, and such order will be governed by the laws of the 
State. 

DON’T become an executor or administrator unless you are 
willing and have time to attend to the duties, and don’t enter 
upon a trust until you thoroughly understand your duties and 
powers. 

DON’T mix trust and personal funds. 

DON’T pay out a dollar of trust money without proper 
vouchers, and don’t fail to keep accurate accounts. 

DON’T liquidate any claim until you have the whole estate in 
hand. 

DON’T pay a bequest before the time fixed in the will without 
deducting interest. 

DON’T give a promissory note as executor or administrator. 

DON’T execute a contested will, or compromise a claim due 
an estate, without the advice and consent of the court. 

DON’T incur any other expenses than those of the burial 
until the will is properly probated, but do not hesitate to sell 
perishable property. 


The Right of Dower. 

Dower is one-third part of the husband’s estate, and in general 
cannot be destroyed by the mere act of the husband. Hence, in 
the sale of real estate by the husband, his wife must, with the 
husband, sign the conveyance to make the title complete to the 
purchaser. In the absence of such signature, the widow can 
claim full dower rights after the husband’s death. Creditors, 
also, seize the property subject to such dowry rights. 

The husband in his will sometimes gives his wife property in 
lieu of dowery. In this case she may, after his death, elect to 
take either such property or her dower; but she cannot take both. 
While the husband lives the wife’s right of dower is only inchoate; 
it cannot be enforced. Should he sell the land to a stranger, she 
has no right of action or remedy until his death. 

In all cases the law of the State in 'which the land is situated 
governs it, and, as in the case of heirship, full information must 
be sought for in statute which is applicable. 


Marriage and Divorce. 

Marriage may be entered into by any two persons, with the 
following exceptions: Idiots, lunatics, persons of unsound mind, 
persons related by blood or affinity within certain degrees pro¬ 
hibited by law, infants under the age of consent, which varies in 
the different States, and all persons already married and not 
legally divorced. 

255 




LEGAL ADVICE. 


The violation of the marriage vow is cause for absolute divorce 
in all the States and Territories, excepting South Carolina and 
New Mexico, which have no divorce laws. 

Physical inability is a cause in all the States except Cal., Conn., Dak., Ia., La., 
N. M., N. Y., S. C., Tex. and Vt. In most of these States it renders marriage 
voidable. 

Willful desertion, one year, in Ark., Cal., Col., Dak., Fla., Ida., Kan., Ky., 
Mo., Mon., Nev., Utah, Wis., W. T. and Wyo. 

Willful desertion, two years, in Ala., Ariz., Ill., Ind., Ia., Mich., Miss., Neb., 
Pa. and Tenn. 

Willful desertion, three years, in Conn., Del , Ga., Me., Md., Mass., Minn., N. 
H., N. J., O., Ore., Tex., Vt. and W. Va. 

Willful desertion, five years, in Va. and R. I., though the court may in the latter 
State decree a divorce for a shorter period. 

Habitual drunkenness, in all the States and Territories, except Md., N. J., N. Y., 
N. C., Pa., S. C., Tex., Vt., Va. and W. Va. 

“Imprisonment for felony” or “conviction of felony” in all the States and Terri¬ 
tories (with limitations), except Dak., Fla., Me., Md., N. J., N. M., N. Y., N. C., 
S. C. and Utah. 

"Cruel and abusive treatment,” “Intolerable cruelty,” “extreme cruelty,” “re¬ 
peated cruelty,” or “ inhuman treatment,” in all the States and Territories except 
N. J., N. M., N. Y., N. C., S. C., Va. and W. Va. 

Failure by the husband to provide: one year in Cal., Col., Dak., Nev. and 
Wyo.; two years in Ind. and Ida.; no time specified in Ariz., Ida., Mass., Mich., 
Me., Neb., R. I., Vt. and Wis.; willful neglect for three years in Del. 

Fraud and fraudulent contract in Ariz., Conn., Ga., Ida., Kan, Ky., O., Pa. 
and W. T. 

Absence without being heard from : three years in N. H.; seven years in Conn, 
and Vt.; separation five years, in Ky.; voluntary separation, five years, in Wis. 
When reasonably presumed dead by the court, in R. I. 

“ Ungovernable temper,” in Ky.; “ habitual indulgence in violent and ungovern¬ 
able temper,” in Fla.; “cruel treatment, outrages or excesses as to render their 
living together insupportable,” in Ark., Ky., La , Mo., Tenn. and Tex.; “indignities 
as render life burdensome,” in Mo., Ore., Pa , Tenn., W. T. and Wyo. 

In Ga. an absolute divorce is granted only after the concurrent verdict of two juries 
at different terms of the court. In N. Y. absolute divorce is granted for but one 
cause, adultery. 

All of the causes above enumerated are for absolute or full 
divorce, and collusion and connivance are especially barred, and 
also condonation of violation of the marriage vow. 

The courts of every State, and particularly of New York, are 
very jealous of their jurisdiction, and generally refuse to recog¬ 
nize as valid a divorce against one of the citizens of the State by 
the court of another State, unless both parties to the suit were 
subject at the same time to the jurisdiction of the court granting 
the divorce. 

Previous Residence Required.— Dak., ninety days; Cal., Ind., 
Ida., Neb., Nev., N. M., Tex. and Wyoming, six months; Ala., Ariz., Ark., Col., 
Ill., Ia., Kan., Ky., Me., Miss., Minn., Mich., Mo., Mont., N. H., O., Ore., Pa., 
Utah, Vt. (both parties as husband and wife), W. Va., W. T. and Wis., one year'; 
Fla., Md., N. C., R. I. and Tenn., two years; Conn, and Mass, (if, when married,' 
both parties were residents; otherwise five years), three years. 

Remarriage.— There are no restrictions upon remarriage by divorced per¬ 
sons in Conn., Ky., Ill. and Minn. Defendant must wait two years and obtain 
permission from the court in Mass. The decree of the court msgr restrain the guilty 
party from remarrying iR Va. Parties cannot remarry until after two years, except 

256 


LEGAL ADVICE. 

by permission of the court, in Me. In N. Y. the plaintiff may remarry, but the de¬ 
fendant cannot do so during the plaintiff’s lifetime, unless the decree be modified 
or proof that five years have elapsed, and that complainant has married again and 
defendant’s conduct has been uniformly good. Any violation of this is punished as 
bigamy, even though the other party has been married. In Del., Pa. and Tenn., 
no wife or husband divorced for violation of the marriage vow can marry the parti- 
ceps criminis during the life of the former husband or wife, nor in La. at any time • 
such marriage in La. renders the person divorced guilty of bigamy. 

Rights of Married Women. 

Any and all property which a woman owns at her marriage, 
together with the rents, issues and profits thereof, and the prop¬ 
erty that comes to her by descent, devise, bequest, gift or grant, 
or which she acquires by her trade, business labor, or services 
performed on her separate account, shall, notwithstanding her 
marriage, remain her sole and separate property, and may be 
used, collected and invested by her in her own name, and shall 
not be subject to the interference or control of her husband, or be 
liable for his debts, unless for such debts as may have been con¬ 
tracted for the support of herself or children by her as his agent. 

A married woman may likewise bargain, sell, assign, transfer 
and convey such property, and enter into contracts regarding 
the same on her separate trade, labor or business with the like 
effect as if she were unmarried. Her husband, however, is not 
liable for such contracts, and they do not render him or his 
property in anj r way liable therefor. She may also sue and be 
sued in all matters having relation to her'sole and separate 
property in the same manner as if she were sole. 

In the following cases a married woman’s contract may be 
enforced against her and her separate estate : i. When the 
contract is created in or respecting the carrying on of the trade 
or business of the wife. 2. When it relates to or is made for the 
benefit of her sole or separate estate. 3. When the intention to 
charge the separate estate is expressed in the contract creat¬ 
ing the liability. 

When a husband receives a principal sum of money belonging 
to his wife, the law presumes he receives it for her use, and he 
must account for it, or expend it on her account by her authority 
or direction, or that she gave it to him as a gift. 

If he receives interest or income and spends it with her 
knowledge and without objection, a gift will be presumed from 
acquiescence. 

Money received by a husband from his wife and expended by 
him, under her direction, on his land, in improving the home of 
the family, is a gift, and cannot be recovered bj r the wife, or re¬ 
claimed, or an account demanded. 

An appropriation by a wife, herself, of her separate property 
to the use and benefit of her husband, in the absence of an agree- 

257 



LEGAL ADVICE. 


ment to repay, or any circumstances from which such an agree¬ 
ment can be inferred, will not create the relation of debtor and 
creditor, nor render the husband liable to account. 

Though no words of gift be spoken, a gift by a wife to her 
husband may be shown by the very nature of the transaction, 
or appear from the attending circumstances. 

A wife who causelessly deserts her husband is not entitled to 
the aid of a court of equity in getting possession of such chattels 
as she has contributed to the furnishing and adornment of her 
husband’s house. Her legal title remains, and she could convey 
her interest to a third party by sale, and said party would have a 
good title, unless her husband should prove a gift. 

Wife’s property is not liable to a lien of a sub-contractor for 
materials furnished to the husband for the erection of a building 
thereon, where it is not shown that the wife was notified of the 
intention to furnish the materials, or a settlement made with the 
contractor and given to the wife, her agent or trustee. 

The common law of the United States has some curious pro¬ 
visions regarding the rights of married women, though in all the 
States there are statutory provisions essentially modifying this law. 
As it now stands the husband is responsible for necessaries sup¬ 
plied to the wife even should he not fail to supply them himself, 
and is held liable if he turn her from his house, or otherwise 
separates himself from her without good cause. He is not held 
liable if the wife deserts him, or if he turns her away for good 
cause. If she leaves him through good cause, then he is liable. 
If a man lives with a woman as his wife, and so represents her, 
even though this representation is made to' one who knows she 
is not, he is liable the same way as if she were his wife. 


Arbitration. 

Arbitration is an investigation and determination of subjects 
of difference between persons involved in dispute, by unofficial 
persons chosen by the parties in question. 

The general rule is that any person capable of making a valid 
contract concerning the subject in dispute may be a party to an 
arbitration. Any matter which the parties may adjust by agree¬ 
ment, or which may be made the subject of a suit at law, may 
be determined by arbitration. Crimes cannot be made the sub¬ 
ject matter of an arbitration. This matter is regulated by statute 
in the different States. 


The Law of Finding. 

The general rule is that the finder has a clear title against 
every one but the owner. The proprietor of a hotel or a shop 

258 




LEGAL ADVICE 


has no right to demand property of others found on his premises. 
Such proprietor may make regulations in regard to lost property 
which will bind their employes, but they cannot bind the public. 
The finder has been held to stand in the place of the owner, so 
that he was permitted to prevail in an action against a person 
who found an article which the plaintiff had originally found, 
but subsequently lost. The police have no special rights in re¬ 
gard to articles lost, unless those rights are conferred by statute. 
Receivers of articles found are trustees for the owner or finder. 
They have no power in the absence of special statute to keep an 
article against the finder, any more than the finder has to retain 
an article against the owner. 


Number of Miles by Water from New York to 


Amsterdam. 3,510 

Bermudas.• 660 

Bombay..11,574 

Boston . 310 

Buenos Ayres . 7,110 

Calcutta.12,425 

Canton .13,900 

Cape Horn.8,115 

Cape of Good Hope. 6,830 

Charleston . 750 

Columbia River.15,965 

Constantinople. 5,140 

Dublin. 3,225 

Gibraltar. 3,300 

Halifax . 612 

Hamburg. 3,775 

Havana. 1,420 

Havre. 3,210 


Kingston. 1,640 

Lima .. .11,310 

Liverpool.,. 3,210 

London. 3,375 

Madras.11,850 

Naples . 4,330 

New Orleans . 2,045 

Panama. 2,358 

Pekin. 15,325 

Philadelphia. 240 

Qyebec . 1,400 

Rio Janeiro. 3,840 

Sandwich Islands.15,300 

San Francisco.....15,858 

St. Petersburg. 4,420’ 

Valparaiso. 9,750 

Washington. 400 

Around the Globe ..25,000 


Dimensions of the Oceans. 


Area, Sq Miles. Av. Depth. 

Pacific . . .68,000,000 12,780 feet 
Atlantic..35,000,000 12,060 “ 
Indian. . .25,000,000 10,980 “ 

Inland Seas 
Name. Area, Sq. Miles. 

Caspian Sea. . .176,000 
Sea of Aral. ... 30,000 
Dead Sea ... 303 

Lake Baikal. . . 12,000 
Lake Superior. 32,000 


Area, Sq. Miles. Av. Depth. 

Antarctic. . 8,500,000 6,000 feet 
Arctic.5,000,000 5,100 « 


of the World. 


Lake Michigan. 
Lake Huron. .. 


22,400 

21,000 


Depth. 

250 ft. 
100 “• 
200 “ 
750 “ 
1,000 “ 
1,000 “ 
1,000 “ 


Name. Area, Sq. Miles. 

Lake Erie. 10,815 

Lake Ontario . . 6,300 
Lake Nicaragua. 6,000 
Lake Titacaca. . 3,012 

Salt Lake . 1,875 

Lake Tchad . . 14,000 
Lake Lodoga. . .12,000 
259 


Depth. 

204 ft. 
336 “ 
300 « 
800 “ 
1,400 “ 
350 “ 
1,200 “ 













































BUSINESS AND LEGAL FORMS. 


SHORT FORM OF ASSIGNMENT OF WRITTEN INSTRUMENT. 

For Value Received, I do hereby assign, transfer and set over unto C D, 
and his assigns, all my right, title and interest in and to the within written instru¬ 
ment, this .day of.. A.D. 1890. A B. 

ORDINARY BILL OF EXCHANGE, OR DRAFT AT A TIME AFTER 

SIGHT. 

$250. Chicago, January 1, 1890. 

Ten days after sight, pay to the order of W F, two hundred and fifty dollars, 
for value received, and charge the same to account of 

To M. B. &Co., 1 J. H. C. & Co., 

New York City, > Chicago, 

N Y. ) Illinois. 

When a draft is payable at sight, commence thus: 

“At sight, pay,” etc. 

GENERAL FORM OF AGREEMENT. 

This Agreement, made this.day of.. one thousand eight hundred 

and.. between A B, of.. county of.. and State of Illinois, of the 

first part, and C D, of.. in said county and State, of the second part— 

Witnesseth, that the said A B, in consideration of the covenants and agree¬ 
ments on the part of the party of the second partHereinafter contained, doth cove¬ 
nant and agree to and with the said C D, that (here insert the agreement on the 
part of A B). 

And the said C D, in consideration of the covenants on the part of the party of 
the first part, doth covenant and agree to and with the said A B, that (here insert 
the agreement on the part of C D). 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals, the day and 
year first above written. A B. [seal ] 

C D. [seal.] 

COMMON FORM OF BOND FOR PAYMENT OF MONEY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of. in the county of 

.. and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto C D, of. , in the 

county of .. and State aforesaid, in the sum of.dollars, to be paid to 

the said C D, his executors, administrators and assigns, to which payment, well and 
truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, and every 
of them, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal, the.day of.A.D. 1890. 

The condition of this obligation is such, that if the above bound A B, his 
heirs, executors and administrators, or either of them, shall well and truly pay, or 
cause to be paid, unto the said C D, his executors, administrators or assigns, the 

just and full sum of.dollars, with interest thereon, at the yearly rate of . 

percent, for the same, on or before the.day of., A.D. 1S90, then this 

obligation to be void and of no effect; otherwise to remain in full force. 

A B. [seal.] 

FORM OF BILL OF SALE OF GOODS OR PERSONAL PROPERTY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of.. in the county of 

.. and State of Illinois, in consideration of the sum of.dollars, to me 

paid by C D, of.. at and before the sealing and delivery of these presents, 

the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have bargained, sold and delivered, 
and by these presents do bargain, sell and deliver unto the said C D, the following 
goods and chattels, towit; (Here insert a bill of particular goods sold or personal 
property). 

To have and to hold the said goods-and chattels unto the said C D, his exec¬ 
utors, administrators and assigns, to his and their own proper use and benefit for¬ 
ever. And I, the said A B, for myself and my heirs, executors and administrators, 
.do warrant and will defend the said bargained premises, unto the said C D., his 
executors, administrators and assigns, from and against all persons whomsoever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal, this.day 

°f. t A.D. 1890. A B. [seal ] 


200 


























FORM OF BOND FOR A DEED. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of the county of. . 

and State of Illinois, am held and firmly bound unto C D, of the county of. \ 

and State aforesaid, in the penal sum of.dollars, to be paid unto the said 

E F, his heirs, executors, administrators or assigns, to which payment, well and 
truly to be made, I bind myself, my heirs, executors and administrators, and every 
of them, firmly by these presents. 

Sealed with my seal, this.day of.. A.D. 1890 . 

The condition of the above obligation is such, that whereas the above bounden 
A B has this day bargained and sold to the said C D, his heirs and assigns, for the 

sum of.dollars, the following described lot or parcel of land, to-wit; (here 

describe the land,) which sum of.dollars is to be paid in manner following: 

.dollars at the ensealing and delivery hereof, and.dollars in. 

from the date hereof. 

Upon the payment of the said sums being made, at the time and in the manner 
aforesaid, the said A B, for himself, his heirs, executors and assigns, covenants and 
agrees, to and with the said C D, his heirs and assigns, to execute a good and 
sufficient deed of conveyance, in fee simple, free from all incumbrance, with full 
and proper covenants of warranty for the above described premises. 

Now, if the said A B shall well and truly keep, observe and perform his said 
covenants and agreements herein contained, on his part, then this obligation to be 
void; otherwise to remain in full force and virtue. A B. [seal.] 


POWER OF ATTORNEY. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, A B, of.. in the county of 

.and State of Illinois, have made, constituted and appointed, and by these 

presents do make, constitute and appoint, CD, of., to be my true and lawful 

attorney, for me and in my name, and for my sole use, to (here state the specific 
purposes of the power given), hereby giving and granting unto my said attorney 
full power and authority in the premises to use all lawful means in my name, and 
for my sole benefit for the purposes aforesaid. And generally to do and perform 
all such acts, matters and things as my said attorney shall deem necessary or ex¬ 
pedient for the completion of the authority hereby given, as fully as I might and 
could do if I were personally present; hereby ratifying and confirming all the acts 
of my said attorney or his substitutes, done by virtue of these presents. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set tny hand and seal, this.day 

of .. A.D. 1890. A B. [seal.] 

WARRANTY DEED. 

The grantor (here insert name or names and place of residence), for and in con¬ 
sideration of (here insert consideration) in hand paid, conveys and warrants to (here 
insert the grantee’s name or names) the following described real estate (here insert 
description), situated in the county of .. in the State of Illinois. 

Dated this.day of. . A.D. 18 .. A B. [seal.] 

QUIT CLAIM DEED. 

The grantor (here insert grantor’s name or names and place of residence), for 
the consideration of (here insert consideration), convey and quit claim to (here in¬ 
sert grantee’s name or names) all interest in the following described real estate 
(here insert description), situated in the county of.. in the State of Illinois. 

Dated this.day of. . A.D. 18 .. A B. [seal.] 

MORTGAGE. 

The mortgagor (here insert name or names) mortgages and warrants to (here 
insert name or names of mortgagee or mortgagees), to secure the payment of (here 
recite the nature and amount of indebtedness, showing when due and the rate of 
interest, and whether secured by note or otherwise), the following described real 

estate (here insert description thereof), situated in the county of.in the State 

of Illinois. A B. [seal.] 

Dated this.day of.. A.D. 18 .. 

FORM OF CERTIFICATE OF ACKNOWLEDGMENT TO DEED OR 
OTHER INSTRUMENT. 

State of (name of State), ) 

County of (name of County). J 

I (here give name of officer and his official title) do hereby certify that (name of 
grantor, and if acknowledged by wife, her name, and add “his wife,”) personally 

261 





























BUSINESS AND LEGAL FORMS. 


known to me to be the same person whose name is (or are) subscribed to the fore¬ 
going instrument, appeared before me this day in person, and acknowledged that 
he (she or they) signed, sealed or delivered the said instrument as his (her or their) 
free and voluntary act, for the uses and purposes therein set forth. 

Given under my hand and (private or official, as the case may be) seal, this 

.day of ., A.D. 18.. (Signature of officer.) [seal.] 

SHORT FORM OF LEASE. 

This Indenture, made this .day of., A.D. 18 .., between A B, 


party of the first part, and C D, party of^he second part, witnesseth, that the said 
party of the first part, in consideration of the covenants of the party of the second 
part, hereinafter set forth, do..by these presents, lease to the party of the second 
part, the following described property, to-wit: (here describe the premises), in the 

county of .. and State of. To have and to hold the same, to the 

party of the second part, from the. day of.. 18 .., to the.day 

of.. 18 .. And the party of the second part, in consideration of the leasing of 

said premises, covenants and agrees to pay the party of the first part, at.as 

rent for the same, the sum of.. payable as follows, to-wit: (Here set forth 

the terms of payment.) 

And the party of the second part covenants with the party of the first part that 
at the expiration of the term of this lease, .he. .will yield up the premises to the 
party of the first part, without further notice, in as good condition as when the same 
were entered upon hy the party of the second part, loss by fire or inevitable accident 

and ordinary wear excepted, and that neither, .he. .nor.legal representatives 

will underlet said premises, or any part thereof, or assign this lease, without the 
written assent of the party of the first part first had thereto. 

And it is further expressly agreed between the parties hereto, that if default 
shall be made in the payment of the rent above reserved, or any part thereof, or any 
of the covenants or agreements herein contained to be kept by the party of the 
second part, it shall be lawful for the party of the first part or.legal represen¬ 

tatives, into and upon said premises, or any part thereof, either with or without pro¬ 
cess of law, to re-enter and re-possess the same at the election of the party of the 
first part, and to distrain for any rent that may be due thereon upon any property 
belonging to the party of the second part. And in order to enforce a forfeiture for 
non-payment of rent, it shall not be necessary to make a demand on the same day 
the rent shall become due, but a failure to pay the same at the place aforesaid, or a 
demand and a refusal to pay on the same day or at any time on any subsequent day, 
shall be sufficient; and after such default shall be made, the party of the second 

part and all persons in possession under.shall be deemed guilty of a forcible 

detainer of said premises under the statute. 

And it is further covenanted and agreed between said parties that (here set 
forth any further stipulation agreed upon.) The covenants herein shall extend to 
and be binding upon the heirs, executors and administrators of the parties to this 
lease. 

Witness the hands and seals of said parties, the day and year first above 
writen. A B. [seal.] 

C D. [seal.1 

FORM OF WILL. 


I, A B, of.. in the county of., and State of Illinois, of the age of 

.years, of sound mind and memory, do make, publish and declare this my 

last will and testament in the manner following: That is to say, 

First, I give and bequeath to (here may be set forth the manner of disposition 
of personal property, and the names of persons and amount to each.) 

Second, I give and devise to (here set forth the manner of disposition of real 
property, and the names of persons to whom devised, concluding as follows:) To 
have and to hold the same and the several tracts and parcels thereof to the said 
.his heirs and assigns forever. 

And lastly, I do hereby nominate and appoint. to be executor of this my 

last will and testament, hereby revoking all former wills by me made. (Add the 
following clause if desired;) And I do direct that my said executor shall not be 
obliged to give security as such. 

%§% 





















EUS/NESS AND LEGAL FORMS. 


In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal this.day of 

* * * * j . . A B. [seal.] 

1 he above instrument, consisting of one sheet (or two sheets, as the case may 
be) was at the date thereof signed, sealed, published and declared by the said A B 
as and for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request and in 
his presence, and in the presence of each other, have subscribed our names as wit¬ 
nesses thereto (or, “the above instrument, consisting of one sheet was at the date 
thereof, declared to us by the said A B, the testator therein mentioned, to be his 
last will and testament; and at the same time acknowledged to us, and each of us, 
he had signed and sealed the same, and we therefore, at his request and in his 
presence, and in the presence of each other, signed our names thereto as attesting 
witnesses.)” C D, residing at.. in.county. 

. G H, residing at.Jn.county. 

the foregoing is the general form of will, which can be varied in case of several 
devisees and legatees, according to the facts or as circumstances may require. 

A devisee is one to whom real property is devised in the will, 

A legatee is one to whom personal property is given in the will. 


BILL OF SALE. 

Know all men by these presents, that I, E D, of the town of .county 

of., State of., of the first part, for and in consideration of the sum of 

one hundred dollars, lawful money of the United States, to me in hand paid, at or 
before the ensealing and delivery of these presents, by C B, of the second part, the 
receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, have bargained, sold, granted and con¬ 
veyed, and by these presents do bargain, sell, grant and convey unto the said party 
of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns (here set out the 
articles sold), to have and to hold the same unto the said party of the second part, 
his executors, administrators and assigns, forever. And I do for myself, my heirs, 
executors and administrators, covenant and agree to and with the said party of the 
second part, to warrant and defend the said described goods hereby sold unto the 
said party of the second part, his executors, administrators and assigns, against all 
and every person and persons whatsoever. 

In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and seal the.day of 

.18.. ED. [SEAL.] 

Signed, sealed and delivered j 
in the presence of B B. f 

PROMISSORY NOTE. 

$ 200 . Baltimore,., 18 .. 

Thirty days after date I promise to pay B B, or order (or bearer), two hundred 
dollars, for value received. B. E. 

JOINT PROMISSORY NOTE. 

$1,050. Memphis,..',18.. 

Sixty days after date we jointly promise to pay C D, or order (or bearer), one 
thousand and fifty dollars, for value received. A C. 

B H. 


NOTE PAYABLE ON DEMAND. 

$ 100 . Mobile,., 18 .. 

On demand, tor value received, I promise to pay H B, or order (or bearer), one 
hundred dollars (with interest). v C. C. 

NOTE PAYABLE AT BANK. 

$ 300 . St. Louis., 18 .; 

Thirty days after date, for value received, I promise to pay C D A, or order (or 
bearer), three hundred dollars, at the German-American Savings Bank. D R S. 


NOTE NOT NEGOTIABLE. 

$ ioo. Madison. ,Ga.,i 8 .. 

Two months after date I promise to payj H, one hundred dollars, for value 
received. B B. 


NOTE WITH SURETY. 

$ 75 . Columbus, Miss.,.. 18 .. 

Six months from date I promise to pay E G, or order (or bearer), seventy-five 
dollars, for value received. B B. 

263 x x - 

















NOTE PAYABLE BY INSTALLMENTS. 

$ 5 oo. Albany,.i$.. 

For value received, I promise to pay A C, or order (or bearer), five hundred 
dollars, in the following manner: One hundred dollars in three months, two hun¬ 
dred dollars in nine months, one hundred dollars in twelve months, and one hun¬ 
dred dollars in fifteen months, from date, with interest on the several sums as they 
may become due. W Z. 

DUE BILL. 

$50. Cincinnati,.18.. 

Due A W, fifty dollars, with interest from this date. ' M A. 

DRAFT AT SIGHT. 

$100. Chicago.*18.. 

At sight, payj C, or order, one hundred dollars, and charge the same to my 
account. CEB. 

To A X. 

BILL OF EXCHANGE. 

$500. New York.18.. 

Fifteen days after sight (or as many days as may be agreed upon), pay to the 
order of Mr. B B, five hundred dollars, and charge the same to the account of 
To L M, St. Louis, Mo. C D. 


HIGH WATER 


At the following places may be found for each day by adding 
to, or substracting from, the time of high water at New York the 
hours and minutes given. The * denotes time to be added ; 
the f to be subtracted. The interval between tides is approxi¬ 
mately twelve hours. 


Time. 


Time. 


Albany, N. Y *. 9:39 

Annapolis, Md.* . 8:57 

Atlantic City, N.J .f . 0:18 

Baltimore, Md* .10:52 

Block Island, R. I.f . 0:53 

Boston, Mass.*. 3:22 

Bridgeport, Conn.*.3:04 

Bristol, R. I.f .0:02 

Cape May, N. J.*. 0:12 

Charleston, S. C.f. 0:43 

Eastport, Me*. 3:01 

Fernandina, Fla.f . 0:19 

Gloucester, Mass.*. 2:57 

Isles of Shoals* ........ 3:11 

Jacksonville, Fla* . 0:36 

Key West, Fla* . 1:23 

Marblehead, Mass.* . 3:04 

Nahant, Mass.*. 3:02 

Nantucket, Mass* . 4:31 

New Bedford, Mass.*. 0:10 

Newburyport, Mass* .... 3:29 

New Haven, Conn.* .... 3:01 

New London, Conn.* .... 1:16 


Newport, R. I.f . 0:22 

Norfolk, Va.* .0:56 

Norwich, Conn.* . 2:05 

Old Point Comfort, Va*. 0:37 

Philadelphia, Pa.* . 5:37 

Plymouth, Mass.*. 3:12 

Point Lookout, Me.*_4:49 

Portland, Me.* . 3:10 

Portsmouth, N. H.* . 3:16 

Poughkeepsie, N. Y.* ... 4:27 

Providence, R. I.*. 0:07 

Richmond, Va* . 8:47 

Rockaway Inlet, N. Y.f. . 0:26 

Rockland, Me.* . 2:55 

Rockport, Mass* . 2:50 

Salem, Mass.* ;. 3:05 

Sandy Hook, N. J.*. 0:36 

Savannah, Ga.+. 0:49 

Vineyard Haven, Mass*. 3:35 

Washington, D. C.*.11:54 

Watch Hill, R. I.*. 0:53 

West Point, N. Y* . 2:55 

Wilmington, N. C* ..... 0:59 































Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations. 



Interest Laws. 

Statutes of Limitations. 

States and Territories. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed by 
Contract. 

Judg¬ 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years. 

Alabama. 

Per Ct. 
8 

Per Cent. 

8 

20 

6 

3 

Arkansas. 

6 

10 

10 

5 

3 

Arizona. 

10 

12 

5 

3 

2 

California. 

7 

Any rate 

5 

4 

2 

Colorado.. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

6 

Connecticut. 

6 

t 


6 

6 

Dakota. 

7 

Any rate 

20 

6 

6 

Delaware. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

3 

District of Columbia ... 

6 

10 

12 

3 

3 

Florida. 

8 

Any rate 

20 

5 

2 

Georgia. 

7 

8 

7- 

7 

4 

Idaho.. 

10 

18 

6 

6 

3 

Illinois. 

6 

8 

7 

10 

5 

Indiana. 

6 

8 

10 

10 

6 

Iowa. 

6 

10 

10 

10 

5 

Kansas. 

7 

12 

5 

5 

2 

Kentucky. 

6 

8 

1%> 

15 

5 

Louisiana. 

5 

8 

10 

5 

3 

Maine. 

6 

Any rate 

20 

6 

6 

Maryland . 

6 

6 

12 

3 

3 

Massachusetts.*. . . 

6 

Anv rate 

20 

6 

6 

Michigan . 

7 

10 

6 

6 

6 

Minnesota. 

7 

10 

10 

6 

6 

Mississippi . 

6 

10 

7 

6 

3 

Missouri .. 

6 

10 

20 

10 

5 

Montana. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

2 

Nebraska. 

7 

10 

5 

5 

4 

Nevada. 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

4 

New Hampshire. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New Jersey.. 

6 

6 

20 

6 

6 

New Mexico . 

6 

12 

15 

6 

4 

New York. 

6 

6* 

20 

6 

6 

North Carolina. 

6 

8 

10 

3 

3 

Ohio . 

6 

8 

5 

15 

6 

Oregon. 

8 

10 

10 

6 

1 

Pennsylvania. 

6 

6 

5 

6 

6 

Rhode Island. 

6 

Any rate 

20 

6 

6 

South Carolina. 

7 

10 

10 

6 

6 


* New York has by a recent law legalized any rate of interest on call loans ot 
$ 5,000 or upward, on collateral security, t No usury, but over six per cent, cannot 
be collected by law. 265 

















































Interest Laws and Statutes of Limitations.— Concluded. 



Interest Laws. 

Statutes of Limitations. 

States and Territories. 

Legal 

Rate. 

Rate 

Allowed by 
Contract. 

Judg¬ 

ments, 

Years. 

Notes, 

Years. 

Open 

Acc’nts 

Years. 

Tennessee. 

Per Ct. 
6 

Per Cent. 

6 

10 

6 

6 

Texas. 

8 

12 

15 

4 

2 

Utah. 

10 

Any rate 

5 

4 

2 

Vermont. 

6 

6 

6 

6 

6 

Virginia. 

6 

8 

10 

5 

2 

Washington Territory... 

10 

Any rate 

6 

6 

3 

West Virginia. 

6 

t 

10 

10 

5 

Wisconsin. 

7 

10 

20 

6 

6 

Wyoming. 

12 

Any rate 

5 

5 

4 


t No usury, but over six per cent, cannot be collected by law. 


A TRIP AROUND THE WORLD. 

From Atlantic cities to Omaha, Neb., via the great trunk lines 
of railway—about 1,400 miles, in 2 days and 2 hours. 

From Omaha to San Francisco, Cal., via Union and Central 
Pacific railroads«^-i, 9 i 4 , in 4 days and 6 hours. 

From San Francisco to Yokohama, Japan, by Pacific Mail line 
of steamers— 4,700 miles, in 22 days. 

From Yokohama to Hong Kong, China, by Pacific Mail or 
Peninsular and Oriental steamers— 1,600 mijes, in 6 days. 

From Hong Kong to Calcutta, India, by Peninsular and Ori¬ 
ental steamers— 3,500 miles in 14 days. 

From Calcutta to Bombay, India, by the East Indian and 
Great Indian Peninsular railways— 1,450 miles, in 3 days. 

From Bombay to Suez, Egypt, by Peninsular and Oriental 
steamers— 3,600 miles, in 14 days. 

From Suez to Alexandria, Egypt, by rail —225 miles, in 10 
hours. 

From Alexandria to Brindisi, Italy, by Peninsular and Oriental 
steamers —850 miles, in 3 days. 

Brindisi to London, Eng., by rail, via Paris or the Rhine— 1,200 
miles, in 3 days. 

From London to Liverpool, Eng., by railway —200 miles, in 6 
hours. 

From Liverpool to the Atlantic cities, America, by either of 
the great Atlantic steamship lines— 3,000 miles, in 10 days. 

Total distance, 23,639 miles. Time, 82 days. Fare, about 
$ 1 , 100 , with $4 per day for meals and incidentals ; the total cost 
of the trip, $ 1 , 500 . 


266 



























u. s. mmm laws. 


Valuable Information for Owners and Locators of Mines. 


HERE papers have once been filed with the Register 
and Receiver, they become a part of the record, and 

can neither be withdrawn nor returned, but must be 
transmitted to the General Land Office. 

An application will be rejected when the description of the premises is erroneous 
or insufficient. 

Application for patent will be rejected because: 

1. 1 he notice was published without the knowledge of the Register. 

2 . 1 he notice was not published in a newspaper designated as published nearest 
the claim. 

3 . Record title was found defective ; and, 

4 - A previous application had been made for the same premises, which was 
withdrawn pending a suit in court commenced by the adverse claimant. 

An application for patent will be rejected when the survey does not accurately 
define the boundaries of the claim. 




Where the claim was not located in accordance with law. 

Where several parties own separate and distinct portions of a claim, application 
for patent may be made by either for that portion of the 
claim owned by him ; but where several parties own un¬ 
divided interests in a mining claim, all should join in 
an application for a patent. 

A person or association may purchase as many placer 
locations as the local law admits, and embrace them all 
in one application for a patent. 

Two or more lodes cannot be embraced in one applica¬ 
tion for a patent except for placer claims embracing two 
or more lodes within their boundaries. 

Paper sworn to before any person purporting to act as 
a deputy for the Register and Receiver, cannot be re¬ 
corded as evidence. 

In all patents for mining claims situated within the in¬ 
terior boundaries of a town site, a clause is inserted “excepting and excluding all 
town property, rights upon the surface, and all houses, buildings, structures, lots, 
blocks, streets, alleys, or other municipal improvements not belonging to the grantee 
herein, and all rights necessary or proper to the occupation, possession and enjoy¬ 
ment of the same.” 

Publication of notice must be made in only one newspaper for the period of sixty 
days. 

Notice must be published ten consecutive weeks in weekly newspapers, and in 
daily newspapers sixty days must elapse between the first and last insertion. 

Where the Register designates the daily issue of a newspaper for publication of 
notices of a mining application for patent, it is not a compliance with law to change 
to the weekly edition of the same paper, without authority of the Register. 

The existence of a salt spring on a tract of land withdraws it from the operation of 
the homestead and pre-emption laws. A hearing for the purpose of proving the 
agricultural character of such lands is not allowed. Land containing valuable de¬ 
posits of slate may be entered under the mining acts. 


Adverse Claims. 

Adverse claimants must file a separate and distinct claim against each applica¬ 
tion which it is alleged conflicts with the premises owned by such adverse claimant. 

The papers in an adverse claim once filed cannot be withdrawn, but become part 
of the record. 

When an adverse claim has been filed it cannot be amended so as to embrace a 
larger portion of the premises than that described in the original adverse claim. 

An adverse claim must be made out in proper form and filed in the proper local 
office during the period of publication of the application for the patent to be effect¬ 
ive. 267 




U. S. MINING LA WS. 

It is the duty of the adverse claimant to commence suit in proper form within 
the required time, and if he trusts the uncertain medium of the United States mail, 
he must abide the consequences, should the delay ensue through misfortune or 
accident. Should the failure to commence suit be the result of the corrupt or dis¬ 
honest action of his attorney, the Interior Department cannot redress the wrong. 

An adverse claimant should set forth in detail the facts upon which he bases his 
adverse claim. A statement in general terms, embodying conclusions of law, with¬ 
out stating the facts generally, will not be considered in evidence. 

An adverse claimant should show a compliance with the local laws in recording 
his claim and in regard to expenditures, and shall file a copy of the original notice 
of his location, and show the nature or extent of the confli'ct alleged. 

An allegation of parties to a suit that they compose the company is sufficient, and 
they are not required to prove that they are the original locators or the identical 
parties who presented the adverse claim. 

Agricultural or Mineral Lands. 

Where land is of little if any value for agricultural purposes, but is essential to 
the proper development of mining claims, it should be disposed of under the Mining 
Act. 

Where lands containing valuable mineral deposits have been included in an agri¬ 
cultural entry, said entry will be canceled at any time prior to issuance of patent, 
upon satisfactory evidence of the existence of such valuable deposits. 

Where valuable deposits of mineral are discovered upon a tract after the same 
has been entered as agricultural, but before patent has been issued, the parties 
claiming the mine might make application for patent for same, and the agricultural 
entry will be canceled to that portion of the land embraced by said mining claim. 

Where mineral deposits are discovered on agricultural lands after patent has 
been issued to an agricultural claimant, they pass with the patent. 

Agricultural college scrip cannot be received in payment for claims. 

Aliens. 

A foreigner may make a mining location and dispose of it, provided he becomes a 
citizen before disposing of the mine. Proof that the party was not a citizen before 
disposing of his claim must be affirmatively shown. 

Locators and intermediate owners other than applicants will not be presumed 
aliens in the absence of allegation or objection prior to issuance of patent. 

The portion of a mining claim sold to an alien cafmot be patented while such 
owner is an alien ; but on his declaration to become a citizen his right dates back 
to his purchase, and he may thereupon secure a United States patent for his claim. 

Tunnels. 

There is no authority of law for a tunnel location 3,000 by 1,500 feet. A proper 
location is the width of the tunnel for 3,000 feet. 

There is no provision of law for patenting tunnel locations, but lodes discovered 
in running a tunnel may be patented in like manner as other lodes. 

When a lode is struck or discovered for the first time in running a tunnel, the 
tunnel owners have the option of recording their claim of 1,500 feet all on one side 
of the point of discovery or intersection, or partly on one side thereof and partly on 
the other. 

Prospecting for blind lodes is prohibited on the line of a located tunnel, while the 
tunnel is in progress, but other parties are in no way debarred from prospecting for 
blind lodes or running tunnels, so long as they keep without the line of such tunnel. 

The right is granted to tunnel owners to 1,500 feet of each blind lode not pre¬ 
viously known to exist, which may be discovered in their tunnel. 

Cross Ledges. 

Revised Statutes. Section 2336. Where two or more ledges cross or intersect 
each other, priority of title shall govern, and such prior location shall be entitled to 
all ore or mineral contained within the space of intersection, but the subsequent 

268 


THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT . 

location shall have the right of way through the space of intersection for the pur¬ 
pose of the convenient working of the mine. And where two or more veins unite, 
the oldest or prior location shall take the vein below the point of union, including 
all the space of the intersection. 


THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 

i. A printed copy of the title (besides the two copies to be 

deposited after publication) of th& book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composi¬ 
tion, engraving, cut, print or photograph, or a description of the painting, drawing, 
chromo, statue, statuary or model or design for a work of the fine arts, for which copy¬ 
right is desired, must be sent bty mail or otherwise, prepaid, addressed "Librarian 
of Congress, Washington, D. C.” This must be done before the publication of the 
book or other article. The applicant must state distinctly the name and resi¬ 
dence of the claimant, and whether copyright is claimed as author, designer 
or proprietor. The printed title required may be a copy of the title page 
of such publications as have title pages. In other cases, the title must be printed 
expressly for copyright entry, with name of claimant of copyright. The style 
of type is immaterial, and the print of a typewriter will be accepted. But a sepa¬ 
rate title is required lor each entry, and each title must be printed on paper as large 
as commercial note. The title of a periodical must include the date and number. 

2. The legal fee for recording each copyright claim is 50 cents, and for a copy 
of this record (or certificate of copyright) an additional lee of 50 cents is required. 
Certificates covering more than one entry are not issued. 

3. Within ten days after publication of each book or other article, two complete 
copies of the best edition issued must be sent, to perfect the copyright, with the 
address "Librarian of Congress, Washington, D. C.” The postage must be pre¬ 
paid, or else the publication inclosed in parcels covered by printed Penalty Labels, 
furnished by the Librarian, in which case they will come free by mail, without 
limit of weight. Without the deposit of copies above required the copyright is 
void, and a penalty of $25 is incurred. 

4. No copyright is valid unless notice is given by inserting in every copy pub¬ 

lished, on the title page or the page following, if it be a book ; or, if a map, chart, 
musical composition, print, cut, engraving, photograph, painting, drawing, chromo, 
statue, statuary or model design intended to be perfected as a work of the fine arts, 
by inscribing upon some portion thereof, or on the substance on which the same is 
mounted, the following words, viz: " Entered according to act of Congress, in the 

year -, by -, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington," 

or, at the option of the person entering the copyright, the words: " Copyright, 
l8—,by -.” l 

The law imposes a penalty of #100 upon any person who has not obtained a copy¬ 
right who shall insert the notice " Entered according to act of Congress” or “Copy¬ 
right," etc., or words of the same import, in or upon any book or other article. 

5. Any author may reserve the right to translate or dramatize his own work. 
In this case, notice should be given by printing the words “ Right of translation 
reserved," or " All rights reserved," below the notice of copyright entry, and noti¬ 
fying the Librarian of Congress of such reservation, to be entered upon the record. 

6. The original term of copyright runs for twenty-eight years. Within six 
months before the end of that time, the author or designer, or his widow or children, 
may secure a renewal for the further term of fourteen years, making forty-two years 

in all. . 

7. The time within which any work entered for copyright may be issued from 

the press is not limited by any law or regulation, but depends upon the discretion 
of the proprietor. A copyright may be secured for a projected work as well as for 
a completed one. But the law provides for no caveat, or notice of interference- 
only for actual entry of title. . 

8. A copyright is assignable in law by any instrument ot writing, but such, as¬ 
signment must be recorded in the office of the Librarian of Congress within sixty 

269 





PATENTS AND TRADEMARKS. 


days from its date. The fee for this record and certificate is $i, and for a certified 
copy of any record of assignment $i. 

9. A copy of the record (or duplicate certificate) of any copyright entry will be 
furnished, under seal, at the rate of 50 cents each. 

10. In the case of books published in more than one volume, or of periodicals 
published in numbers, or of engravings, photographs or other articles published 
with variations, a copyright is to be entered for each volume or part of a book, or 
number of a periodical, or variety, as to style, title or inscription, of any other 
article. But a book published serially in a periodical, under the same general title, 
requires only one entry. To complete the copyright on such a work, two copies of 
each serial part, as well as of the complete work (if published separately), must be 
deposited. 

11. To secure a copyright for a painting, statue, or model or design intended to 
be perfected as a work of the fine arts, so as to prevent infringement by copying, 
engraving, or vending such design, a definite description must accompany the ap¬ 
plication for copyright, and a photograph of the same, at least as large as “cabinet 
size,” should be mailed to the Librarian of Congress within ten days from the com¬ 
pletion of the work or design. 

12. Copyrights cannot be granted upon trademarks, nor upon mere names of 
companies or articles, nor upon prints or labels intended to be used with any article 
of manufacture. If protection for such names or labels is desired, application must 
be made to the Patent Office. 

13. Citizens or residents of the United States only are entitled to copyright. 


THE LAW OF TRADEMARKS. 

Any person, firm or corporation can obtain protection for any 

lawful trademark by complying with the following : 

1. By causing to be recorded in the Patent office the name, residence and place 
of business of persons desiring the trademark. 

. 2. The class of merchandise and description of the same. 

3. A description of the trademark itself with fac-similes. 

4. The length of time that the said mark has already been used. 

5. By payment of the required fee—$6.00 for labels and $25 for trademarks. 

6. By complying with such regulations as may be prescribed by the commis¬ 
sioner of patents. 

7. A lawful trademark must consist of some arbitrary word (not the name of a 
person or place), indicating or not the use or nature of the thing to which it is ap¬ 
plied ; of some designation symbol, or of both said word and symbol. 


HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT. 

Patents are issued in the name of the United States, and under 
the seal of the Patent Office, to any person who has invented or 
discovered any new and useful art, machine, manufacture or 
composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement 
thereof, not known or used by* others in this country, and not 
patented or described in any printed publication in this or any 
foreign country, before his invention or discovery thereof, and 
not in public use or on sale for more than two years prior to his 
application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned ; 
and by any person who, by his own industry, genius, efforts and 
expense has invented and produced any new and original design 
for a manufacture, bust, statue, alto-relievo, or bas-relief; any 

270 




HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT . 


new and original design for the printing of woolen, silk, cotton 
or other fabrics ; any new and original impression, ornament, 
pattern, print or picture to be printed, painted, cast or otherwise 
placed on or worked into any article of manufacture ; or any 
new, useful and original shape or configuration of any article of 
manufacture, the same not having been known or used by others 
before his invention or production thereof, or patented or 
described in any printed publication, upon payment of the fees 
required by law and other due proceedings had. 

Every patent contains a grant to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, for the term 
of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use and vend the invention or 
discovery throughout the United States and the Territories, referring to the specifi¬ 
cation for the particulars thereof. 

If it appear that the inventor, at the time of making his application, believed 
himself to be the first inventor or discoverer, a patent will not be refused on account 
of the invention or discovery, or any part thereof, having been known or used in 
any foreign country before his invention or discovery thereof, if it had not been before 
patented or described in any printed publication. 

Joint inventors are entitled to a joint patent; neither can claim one separately. 
Independent inventors of distinct and independent improvements in the same 
machine cannot obtain a joint patent for their separate inventions; nor does the 
fact that one furnishes the capital and another makes the invention entitle them to 
make application as joint inventors; but in such case they may become joint 
patentees.. 

The receipt of letters patent from a foreign government will not prevent the in¬ 
ventor from obtaining a patent in the United States, unless the invention shall have 
been introduced into public use in the United States more than two years prior to 
the application. But every patent granted for an invention which has been pre¬ 
viously patented by the same inventor in a foreign country will be so limited as to 
expire at the same time with the foreign patent, or, if there be more than one, at the 
same time with the one having the shortest unexpired term, but in no case will it be 
in force more than seventeen years. 

Applications. 

Application for a patent must be made in writing to the Commissioner of Patents. 
The applicant must also file in the Patent Office a written description of the same, 
and of the manner and process of making, constructing, compounding and using it, 
in such full, clear, concise and exact terms as to enable any person skilled in the 
art or science to which it appertains, or with which it is most nearly connected, to 
make, construct, compound and use the same ; and in case of a machine, he must 
explain the principle thereof, and the best mode in which he has contemplated ap¬ 
plying that principle, so as to distinguish it from other inventions, and particularly 
point out and distinctly claim the part, improvement or combination which he 
claims as his invention or discovery. The specification and claim must be signed 
by the inventor and attested by two witnesses. 

When the nature of the case admits of drawings, the applicant must furnish one 
copy signed by the inventor or his attorney in fact, and attested by two witnesses, 
to be filed in the Patent Office. In all cases which admit of representation by 
model, the applicant, if required by the Commissioner, shall furnish a model of 
convenient size to exhibit advantageously the several parts of his invention or dis¬ 
covery. 

The applicant shall make oath that he verily believes himself to be the original 
and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, manufacture, composition or 
improvement for which he solicits a patent; that he does not know and does not 
believe that the same was ever before known or used, and shall state of what coun¬ 
try he is a citizen. Such oath may be made before any person within the United 
States authorized by law to administer oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a 
foreign country, before any minister, charge d’affaires, consul or commercial agent. 


HOW TO OBTAIN A PATENT. 


holding commission under the Government of the United States, or before any 
notary public of the foreign country in which the applicant may be. 

On the filing of such application and the payment of the fees required by law, if, 
on such examination, it appears that the claimant is justly entitled to a patent 
under the law, and that the same is sufficiently useful and important, the Commis¬ 
sioner will issue a patent therefor. 

Assignments. 

Every patent or any interest therein shall be assignable in law by an instrument 
in writing; and the patentee or his assigns or legal representatives may, in like 
manner, grant and convey an exclusive right under his patent to the whole or any 
specified part of the United States. 

Reissues. 

A reissue is granted to the original patentee, his legal representatives, or the as¬ 
signees of the entire interest when, by reason of a defective or insufficient specifica¬ 
tion, or by reason of the patentee claiming as his invention or discovery more than 
he had a right to claim as new, the original patent is inoperative or invalid, pro¬ 
vided the error has arisen from inadvertance, accident or mistake, and without any 
fraudulent or deceptive intention. In the cases of patents issued and assigned prior 
to July 8, 1870, the applications for reissue may be made by the assignees ; but in 
the cases of patents issued or assigned since that date, the applications must be 
made and the specifications sworn to by the inventors, if they be living. 

Caveats. 

A caveat, under the patent law, is a notice given to the office of the caveator’s 
claim as inventor, in order to prevent the grant of a patent to another for the same 
alleged invention upon an application filed during the life of the caveat without 
notice to the caveator. 

Any citizen of the United States who has made a new invention or discovery, and 
desires further time to mature the same, may, on payment of a fee of §10, file in the 
Patent Office a caveat setting forth the object and the distinguishing characteristics 
of the invention, and praying protection of his right until he shall have matured 
his invention. Such caveat shall be filed in the confidential archives of the office 
and preserved in secrecy, and shall be operative for the term of one year from the 
filing thereof. 

An alien has the same privilege, if he has resided in the United States one year 
next preceding the filing of his caveat, and has made oath of his intention to be¬ 
come a citizen. 

The caveat must comprise a specification, oath, and, when the nature of the case 
admits of it, a drawing, and, like the application, must be limited to a single inven¬ 
tion or improvement. 

Fees. 

Fees must be paid in advance, and are as follows: On filing each original appli¬ 
cation for a patent, $15. On issuing each original patent, $20. In design cases: 
For three years and six months, $10 ; for seven years, $15 ; for fourteen years, $30. 
On filing each caveat, $10. On every application for the reissue of a patent, $30. On 
filing each disclaimer, $10. For certified copies of patents and other papers, in¬ 
cluding certified printed copies, 10 cents per hundred words. For recording every 
assignment, agreement, power of attorney or other paper, of three hundred words 
or under, $1 ; of over three hundred and under one thousand words, $2; of over 
one thousand words, $3. For copies of drawings, the reasonable cost of making 
them. 


Greatest Known Depth of the Ocean. 

The greatest known depth of the ocean is midway between the 
islands of Tristan d’Acunah and the mouth of the Rio de la Plata. The 
bottom was here reached at a depth of 46,236 feet, or eight and three-fourths miles, 
exceeding by more than 17,000 feet the height of Mt. Everest, the loftiest mountain 
m the world. The average depth of all the oceans is from 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms. 

272 



PRINCIPAL POINTS OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. 


Congress must meet at least once a year. 

One State cannot undo the acts of another. 

Congress may admit as many new States as desired. 

The Constitution guarantees every citizen a speedy trial by 
jury. 

A State cannot exercise a power which is vested in Congress 
alone. 

One State must respect the laws and legal decisions of an¬ 
other. 

Congress cannot pass a law to punish a crime already com¬ 
mitted. 

U. S. Senators are chosen by the legislatures of the States by 
joint ballot. 

Bills for revenue can originate only in the House of Repre¬ 
sentatives. 

A person committing a felony in one State cannot find refuge 
in another. 

The Constitution of the United States forbids excessive bail 
or cruel punishment. 

Treaties with foreign countries are made by the President and 
ratified by the Senate. 

In the U. S. Senate Rhode Island or Nevada has an equal 
voice with New York. 

When Congress passes a bankruptcy law it annuls all the 
State laws on that subject. 

Writing alone does not constitute treason against the United 
States. There must be an overt act. 

Congress cannot lay any disabilities on the children of a per¬ 
son convicted of crime or misdemeanor. 

The Territqries each send a delegate to Congress, who has 
the right of debate, but not the right to vote. 

The Vice-President, who ex-officio presides over the Senate, 
has no vote in that body except on a tie ballot. 

An act of Congress cannot become a law over the President’s 
veto except on a two^thy-ds vote of both houses. 

An officer of the Government cannot accept title of nobility, 
order or honor without the permission of Congress. 

Money lost in the mails cannot be recovered from the Govern¬ 
ment. Registering a letter does not insure its contents. 

It is the House of Representatives that may impeach the 
President for any crime, and the Senate hears the accusation. 

If the President holds a bill longer than ten days while Con¬ 
gress is still in session, it becomes a law without his signature. 

Silver coin of denominations less than $i is not a legal tender 

273 



POINTS OF CONSTITUTIONAL LAW. 

for more than $5.00. Copper and nickel coin is not legal 
tender. 

The term of a Congressman is two years, but a Congressman 
may be re-elected to as many successive terms as his constituents 
may wish. 

Amendments to the Constitution require a two-thirds vote of 
each house of Congress and must be ratified by at least three- 
fourths of the States. 

When the militia is called out in the service of the General 
Government, they pass out of the control of the various States 
under the command of the President. 

The President of the United States must be 35 years of age; a U. 
S. Senator, 30 ; a Congressman, 25. The President must have 
been a resident of the United States fourteen years. 

A grand jury is a secret tribunal, and may hear only one side 
of a case. It simply decides whether there is good reason to 
hold for trial. It consists of twenty-four men, twelve of whom 
may indict. 

A naturalized citizen cannot become President or Vice-Presi¬ 
dent of the United States. A male child born abroad of Ameri¬ 
can parents has an equal chance to become President with one 
born on American soil. 


Curious By-Products from Coal.— The Pittsburgh Dis¬ 
patch mentionssome chemical developments from coal that are new. There are a 
good many products from coal that the majority of the people know nothing of. 
Their number will go into the thousands, and research into this particular branch 
of inorganic chemistry is bringing new and rich rewards to scientists each year. One 
of the hydrocarbons distinctly produced from coal tar is benzole. This is the base 
of jnagenta red and blue coloring matters and of the oil of bitter almonds. This oil 
formerly came entirely from the vegetable product from which it takes its name, but 
now it is, to a large extent, made from benzole, and a chemically pure product is 
secured. The vegetable oil of bitter almonds contains a certain amount of prussic 
acid, which is a poisonous substance. Toluene, or tolulo, is another product from 
coal tar, which is the base of a great many chemicals. Benzoic acid, which used to 
be made almost entirely from plants, is now readily made from toluene. Carbolic 
acid is another product of tolulo. The latter is a colorless fluid with a smell very 
much like crude petroleum, while carbolic acid and salicylic acid, two of its prod¬ 
ucts, are far from being sweet-smelling compounds. Yet this same tolulo is the 
basis of a number of very fragrant products. Wintergreen oil, much purer than from 
the plant, and generally preferred by confectioners’ and others who use it, is one ; 
oil of cinnamon, cinnamic acid, and oil of cloves are among the middle products 
which are in great demand. As yet the products of coal tar have not been made use 
of for medicines to any great extent, except as disinfectants, but, from experiments 
now going on, it is hoped to produce pure quinine from chinolene, one of the coal- 
tar products, and scientists say that it is only a question of time when all alkaloids 
known, and probably others not now known, will be made from coal tar. It would 
take a good-sized book to even begin to give an idea of the commercial products 
alone of coal tar. Nearly every known color, exceptxochineal red and indigo blue, 
is made, and the latter was produced after nine years of experiment by the eminent 
German scientist Byer of Munich, but the manufacture was so expensive that it has 
never been done except for scientific purposes. The logwood and madder dyes ot 
our grandmothers’ days are rarely seen in the market now, owing to the cheapness 
with which they are manufactured. Red ink, which formerly was made almost ex¬ 
clusively from carmine, is now made from eosine, one of the numerous coal-tar 
progeny. 07 A 




VOTING AND NATURALIZATION 


The right to vote comes from the State, and is a State 
gift. Naturalization is a Federal right, and is a gift of the 
Union, not of any one State. In nearly one-half the Union 
aliens who have declared intentions vote and have the right to 
vote equally with naturalized or native-born citizens. In the 
other half only actual citizens mav vote. The Federal natural¬ 
ization laws apply to the whole Union alike, and provide that no 
alien male may be naturalized until after five years’ residence. 
Even after five years’ residence and due naturalization he is not 
entitled to vote unless the laws of the State confer the privilege 
upon him, and he may vote in one State (Minnesota) four 
months after landing, if he has immediately declared his inten¬ 
tion, under United States law, to become a citizen. 

Naturalization. 

The conditions under and the manner in which an alien may 
be admitted to become a citizen of the United States are pre¬ 
scribed by Sections 2165-74 of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States. 

Declaration of Intention. —The alien must declare upon oath before a Circuit 
or District Court of the United States, or a District or Supreme Court of the Ter¬ 
ritories, or a court of record of any of the States having common law jurisdiction, 
and a seal and clerk, two years at least prior to his admission, that it is, bona jide , 
his intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all 
allegiance and fidelitylto any foreign prince or State, and particularly to the one of 
which he may be at the time a citizen or subject. 

Oath on Application for Admission.— He myst, at the time of his application 
to be admitted, declare on oath, before some one of the courts above specified, 
“that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he absolutely 
and entirely renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to every foreign 
prince, potentate. State or sovereignty, and particularly, by name, to the prince, 
potentate. State or sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or subject,” which 
proceedings must be recorded by the clerk of the court. 

Conditions for Citizenship. —If it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court 
to which the alien has applied that he has resided continuously within the United 
States for at least five years, and within the State or Territory where such court is 
at the time held one year at least; and that during that time “he has behaved as a 
man of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the 
United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same,” he 
will be admitted to citizenship. 

Titles of Nobility. —If the applicant has borne any hereditary title or order of 
nobility, he must make an express renunciation of the same at the time of his ap¬ 
plication. 

Soldiers. —Any alien of the age of twenty-one years and upwards, who has 
been in the armies of the United States and has been honorably discharged there¬ 
from, may become a citizen on his petition, without any previous declaration of in¬ 
tention, provided that he has resided in the United States at least one year previous 
to his application, and is of good moral character. 

Minors. —Any alien under the age of twenty-one years who has resided in the 
United States three years next preceding his arriving at that age, and who has con¬ 
tinued to reside therein to the time he may make application to be admitted a 
citizen thereof, may, after he arrives at the age of twenty-one years, and after he 
has resided five years within the United States, including the. three years of his 
minority, be admitted a citizen ; but he must make a declaration on oath and prove 

275 



THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION . 

to the satisfaction of the court that for two years next preceding it has been his 
bona fide intention to become a citizen. 

Children of Naturalized Citizens. —The children of persons who have been 
duly naturalized, being under the age of sixteen years at the time of the naturaliza¬ 
tion ef their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citi¬ 
zens thereof. 

Citizens’ Children Who Are Born Abroad. —The children of persons who now 
are or have been citizens of the United States are, though born out of the limits and 
jurisdiction of the United States, considered as citizens thereof. 

Protection Abroad to Naturalized Citizens. —Section 2000 of the Revised 
Statutes of the United States declares that “all naturalized citizens of the United 
States while in foreign countries are entitled to and shall receive from this Govern¬ 
ment the same protection of persons and property which is accorded to native-born 
citizens.” 


When a Man Becomes of Age. 

The question sometimes arises whether a man is entitled to 
vote at an election held on the day preceding the twenty-first 
anniversary of his birth. Blackstone, in his Commentaries, 
book 1, page 463, says : “Full age in male or female is 21 years, 
which age is completed on the day preceding the anniversary of 
a person’s birth, who, till that time, is an infant, and so styled in 
law.” The late Chief Justice Sharsw^ood, in his edition of Black- 
stone’s Commentaries, quotes Christian’s note on the above as 
follows : “If he is born on the 16th day of February, 1608, he 
is of age to do any legal act on the morning of the 15th of Feb¬ 
ruary, 1629, though he may not have lived twenty-one years by 
nearly forty-eight hours. The reason assigned is that in law 
there is no fraction of a day ; and if the birth were on the last 
second of one day and the act on the first second of the preced¬ 
ing dav twenty-one years after, then twenty-one years would be 
complete ; and in the law it is the same whether a thing is done 
upon one moment of the day or another.” * The same high 
authority (Sharswood) adds in a note of his own : “A person 
is of full age the day before the twenty-first anniversary of his 
birthday.” 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 

The President and Vice-President of the United States are 
chosen by officials termed “Electors” in each State, who are, 
under existing State laws, chosen by the qualified voters thereof 
by ballot, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in Novem¬ 
ber in every fourth year preceding the year in which the Presi 
dential term expires. 

The Constitution of the United States prescribes that each 
State shall “appoint,” in such manner as the Legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of 

k76 




THE PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION. 

Senators and Representatives to which the State may be en¬ 
titled in Congress ; but no Senator or Representative or person 
holding an office of trust or profit under the United States shall 
be an elector. The Constitution requires that the day when 
electors are chosen shall be the same throughout the United 
States. At the beginning of our Government most of the elect¬ 
ors were chosen by the Legislatures of their respective States, 
the people having no direct participation in their choice; and one 
State, South Carolina, continued that practice down to the break¬ 
ing out of the Civil War. But in all the States now the Presi¬ 
dential electors are, under the direction of State laws, chosen by 
the people. 

The manner in which the chosen electors meet and ballot for 
a President and Vice-President of the United States is provided 
for in Article XII. of the Constitution. The same article pre¬ 
scribes the mode in which the Congress shall count the ballots 
of the electors, and announce the result. 

The procedure of the two houses, in case the returns of the 
election of electors from any State are disputed, is provided 
in the “Electoral Count” Act, passed by the Forty-ninth Con¬ 
gress. 

The Constitution defines who is eligible for President of the 
United States, as follows : 

No person except a natural-born citizen or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution 
shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any 
person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to 
the age of 35 years. 

The qualifications for Vice-President are the same. 

The “Electoral Count” Act directs that the Presidential elect¬ 
ors shall meet and give their votes on the second Monday in 
January next following their election. It fixes the time when 
Congress shall be in session to count the ballots as the second 
Wednesday in February succeeding the meeting of the electors. 

The Presidential succession is fixed by chapter 4 of the acts of 
the Forty-ninth Congress, first session. In case of the removal, 
death, resignation or inability of both the President and Vice- 
President, then the Secretary of State shall act as President 
until the disability of the President or Vice-President is removed 
or a President is elected. If there be no Secretary of State, then 
the Secretary of the Treasury will act; and the remainder of 
the order of succession is : The Secretary of War, Attorney- 
General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, and Secre¬ 
tary of the Interior. The acting President must, upon taking 
office, convene Congress, if not at the time in session, in extra¬ 
ordinary session, giving twenty days’ notice. 

277 


Qualifications of Voters in the States. 


States. 


Alabama.. . 
Arkansas.. . 
California .. 
Colorado.... 
Connecticut. 
Delaware.. . 

Florida .. .. 

Georgia .... 

Illinois. 

Indiana... . 

Iowa. 

Kansas .... 
Kentucky .. 
Louisiana... 

Maine. 

Maryland. . 
Massach ’ tts 
Michigan... 
Minnesota.. 
Mississippi.. 

Missouri.... 

Nebraska . . 
Nevada .... 
N. Ham’sh’e 
New Jersey. 
New York.. 
N. Carolina. 

Ohio. 

Oregon... . 
Pennsylv’n’a 

R. Island... 

S. Carolina. 
Tennessee.. 

Texas. 

Vermont. .. 
Virginia.. .. 
W. Virginia. 
Wisconsin... 


Requirement as to 
Citizenship. 


Citizen or declared intent 
Citizen or declared intent 

Actual citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent 

Actual citizens. 

Actual county taxpayers. 

) U. S. citizens or de- 

j dared intention. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens . 

Citizen or declared intent. 

Actual citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent. 
Free white male citizens.. 
Citizen or declared intent. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent. 
Citizen or declared intent. 
Actual citizens. 


Citizen or declared intent.. 

Citizen or declared intent.. 
Citizen or declared intent.. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual tax-paying citizens.. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent.. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Actual citizens. 

Citizen or declared intent.. 


Residence in 

Registration. 

State 

Co’ty 

Pre¬ 

cinct, 

ly 

3 m 

1 m 

Legis. may regulate 

ly 

6 m 

J m 

Prohib. as bar to suf 

1 y 

SOd 

30 d 

Required by law 

6 m 

.... 


Req. by constitution 

ly 

6 m 

6 m 

Required by law 

ly 

1 m 

.... 

No reg. required 

ly 

C m 

.... 

Req. by constitutio 

1 y 

6 m 


Legis. may regulate 

ly 

90 d 

30 d 

Required by law 

6 m 

60 d 

30 d 

No law for reg 

6 m 

60 d 

.... 

Required by law 

6 m 

.... 

30 d 

Req. in cities only 

2 y 

ly 

60 d 

No reg. required 

ly 

6 m 

30 d 

Legis may regulate 

3 m 

• • • • 

. . . . 

Required by law 

ly 

6 m 

.... 

Req. by constitution 

ly 

.... 

6 m 

Required by law 

3 m 

.... 

10 d 

Required by law 

4 m 

.... 

10 d 

Required by law 

6 ni 

ly 

1 m 

60 d 

... 

Req. by constitution 
j Req. by constitu- 

.... 

) tion in cities only 

6 m 

• • • • 

. . . . 

Required by law 

6 m 

30 d 

. , . . 

Req. by constitution 


. . . . 

6 m 

Required by law 

ly 

5 m 

, . . . 

Req. cities of 10,000 

ly 

4 m 

30 d 

Req. cities of 10,000 

ly 

90 d 

, , . . 

Req. by constitution 

ly 

6 ni 

.... 

.... 

No reg. required 

ly 

.... 

2 m 

Req. by constitution 

ly 

. 4 . . 

6 m 

Required by law 

ly 

60 d 

, . . . 

Req. by constitution 

ly 

6 m 

, . . . 

No reg. required 

1 y 

6 ni 

6 m 

Prohibited 

ly 

.... 

. . . . 

Required by law 

ly 

.... 

3 m 

Required by law 

ly 

60 d 

.... 

Prohibited 

1 y 

.... 

.... 

Required by law 


State elections are held in the various States as follows: Ala¬ 
bama and Kentucky, first Monday in August; Arkansas, first 
Monday in September; Georgia, first Wednesday in October; 
Louisiana, Tuesday after third Monday in April; Maine, second 
Monday in September; Oregon, first Monday in June; Rhode 
Island, first Wednesday in April; Vermont, first Tuesday in 
September. All others are on Tuesday after first Monday in 
November. State Presidential elections are all on Tuesday after 
first Monday in November. 

Roderigo de Triana was the name of the sailor with Col¬ 
umbus who first saw the “New World”—at 2 a. m., Oct. 12, 
1492, on board the Pinta. 


278 
















































THE AUSTRALIAN BALLOT SYSTEM. 

What is termed the Australian Ballot System, the professed 
purposes of which are to secure the secrecy of the ballot and 
prevent the intimidation or corrupting of the voter, was prac¬ 
tically introduced into the United States recently by its adoption 
by law in the State of Massachusetts and the city of Louisville, 
Ky. Agitation for the adoption of this plan of voting is now 
rife in many States. 

Its substantial requirements are as follows : Ballots are to be 
provided at public expense ; none but these ballots are to be 
used ; on them are to be printed the names of all candidates 
who are nominated either by conventions or petitions a short 
period prior to the election ; the ballots are to be distributed 
only by sworn ballot clerks, at the polls, to voters, and for actual 
and immediate use in voting; the voter is allowed five minutes 
in which to retire into a booth conveniently arranged, where he 
secretly marks his choice of candidates upon the face of the bal¬ 
lot, or, if he prefers, writes the names of candidates of his own 
nomination in place of those whose names are already printed ; 
having done this he proceeds directly to the ballot-box, and, 
without exposing the face of the ballot, or communicating with 
any one, deposits the ballot as his vote. For the benefit of the 
blind and illiterate, such a voter is permitted to select one of the 
two ballot clerks, who, under oath of fidelity and secrecy, assists 
him to mark his ballot. 


POPULAR VOTE. 

For Presidential candidates from 1824 to and including 1888. 
Prior to 1824 electors were chosen by the Legislatures of the 
different States. 


1824—J. Q. Adams had 105,321 to 155,- 
872 for Jackson, 44,282 for Crawford, 
and 46,587 for Clay. Jackson over 
Adams, 50,551. Adams less than 
combined vote of others, 140,869. Of 
the whole vote Adams had 29.92 per 
cent., Jackson 44.27, Clay 13.23, 
Crawford 13.23. Adams elected by 
House of Representatives. 

1828—Jackson had 647,231 to 509,097 for 
J. Q. Adams. Jackson’s majority, 
138,134. Of the whole vote Jackson 
had 55.07 per cent., Adams 44.03. 

1832—Jackson had 687,502 to 530,189 
for Clay, and 33,108 for Floyd and 
Wirt combined. Jackson’s majority, 
124,205. Of the whole vote Jackson 
had 54.96 per cent., Clay 42.39, and 
the others combined 2.65. 

1836—Van Buren had 761,54910736,656, 
the combined vote for Harrison, 

279 


White, Webster and Maguin. Van 
Buren’s majority, 24,893. Of the 
whole vote Van Buren had 50.83 per 
cent., and the others combined 49.17. 

1840—Harrison had 1,275,017 to 1,128,- 
702 foe Van Buren, and 7,059 for 
Birney. Harrison’s majority, 139,256. 
Of the whole vote Harrison had 52.89 
per cent., Van Buren 4682 and Bir¬ 
ney .29. 

1844—Polk had 1,337,243 to 1,299,068 
for Clay and 62,300 for Birney. Polk 
over Clay, 38,175. Polk less than 
others combined, 24,125. Of the 
whole vote Polk had 49.55 per cent.. 
Clay 48.14 and Birney 2.21. 

1848—Taylor had 1,360,101 to 1 220,544 
for Cass, and 291,263 for Van Buren. 
Taylor over Cass, 139,577. Taylor 
less than others combined, 151,706. Ot 
the whole vote Taylor had 47.36 per 




Popular Vote 

cent , Cass 42.50 and Van Buren 
1014. 

1852—Pierce had 1,601,474 to 1,386,578 
for Scott and 156,149 for Hale. Pierce 
over all, 58,747. Of the whole vote 
Pierce had 50.90 per cent., Scott 44.10 
and Hale 4 97. 

1856—Buchanan had 1,838,169101,341,- 
264 for Fremont and 874,534 for Fill¬ 
more. Buchanan over Fremont, 496,- 
905. Buchanan less than combined 
vote of others, 377,629. Of the whole 
vote Buchanan had 45.34 per cent., 
Fremont 33.09 and Fillmore 21.57. 

i860—Lincoln had 1,866,352 to 1,375,- 
157 for Douglas, 845,763 for Brecken- 
ridg'e and 589,581 for Bell. Lincoln 
over Breckenridge, 491,195. Lincoln 
less than Douglas and Breckenridge 
combined, 354,568. Lincoln less than 
combined vote of all others, 944,149. 

Of the whole vole Lincoln had 39 91 
per cent., Douglas29.40,Breckenridge 
18.08 and Bell 12 61. 

1864—Lincoln had 2,216,067 to 1,808,- 
725 for McClellan (eleven States not 
voting, viz: Alabama, Arkansas, 
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Missis¬ 
sippi, North Carolina, South Caro¬ 
lina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia). 
Lincoln’s majority, 408,342. Of the 
whole vote Lincoln had 55.06 per 
cent, and McClellan 44.94. 

1868—Grant had 3,015071 to 2,709,613 
for Seymour (three States not voting, 
viz: Mississippi, Texas and Virginia). 
Grant’s majority, 305,458. Of the 
whole vote Grant had 52.67 per cent, 
and Seymour 47.33. 

1872—Grant had 3,597,070 to 2,834,079 
for Greeley, 29,408 for O’Conor and 
5,608 for Black. Grant’s majority, 
729,975. Of the whole vote Grant 
had 55.63 per cent., Greeley 43.83, 

O’Conor .15, Black .09. 

1876—Hayes had 4,033,950 to 4,284,885 
for Tilden, 81,740 for Cooper, 9,522 
for Smith and 2,636 scattering. Til- 


,— Concluded. 

den’s majority over Hayes, 250,935. 
Tilden’s majority of the entire vote 
cast, 157,037. Hayes less than the 
combined vote of others, 344,833. Of 
the whole vote cast Hayes had 47.95 
per cent., Tilden 50.94, Cooper .97, 
Smith .11, scattering.03. 

1880—Garfield had 4,449,053 to 4,442,- 
035 for Hancock, 307,306 for Weaver 
and 12,576 scattering. Garfield over 
Hancock, 7,018. Garfield less than 
the combined vote of others, 313,864. 
Of the popular vote Garfield had 
48.26 per cent., Hancock 48.25, Weav¬ 
es-33> scattering. 13. 

1884 — Cleveland had 4,874,986 to 4,851,- 
981 for Blaine, 150,36^ for St.John, 
173,370 f° r Butler. Cleveland had 
over Blaine 23,006. Cleveland had 
48.48 per cent., Blaine 48.22, St. John 
1.49, Butler 1.74. 

1888—Harrison had 5,441,902 to 5,538,- 
560 for Cleveland, 249,937 for Fisk, 
147,521 for Streeter, 3,673 for Cowdrey, 
1,591 for Curtis and 9,845 scattering. 
Harrison had 96,658 less than Cleve¬ 
land. Of the whole vote Harrison 
had 47 83 per cent., Cleveland 48.63, 
Fisk 2 21 and Streeter 1.30. 

Of the Presidents, Adams, Federalist; 
Polk Buchanan and Cleveland, Demo¬ 
crats; Taylor, Whig; Lincoln, Hayes, 
Garfield and Harrison, Republicans, 
did not, when elected, receive a majority 
of the popular vote. The highest per¬ 
centage of popular vote received by any 
President was 55 97 for Jackson, Demo¬ 
crat, in 1828, and the lowest 39.91 for 
Lincoln, Republican, in i860; Harrison, 
Republican, next lowest, with 47.83. 
Hayes and Harrison, with the exception 
of John Quincy Adams, who was chosen 
by the House of Representatives, were 
the only Presidents ever elected who 
did not have a majority over their princi¬ 
pal competitors, and Tilden and Cleve¬ 
land the only defeated candidates who 
had a majority over the President-elect. 


Candle-Power. —The candle-power of a light may be ap¬ 
proximately calculated by comparing the shadow cast by a rod 
in the light of a standard candle, with the shadow cast by the 
light to be tested. By moving the latter toward or away from 
the rod, a point will be reached at which the shadow cast by 
both lights will be of the same intensity. The intensities of the 
two lights are directly proportional to the squares of their dis¬ 
tances from the shadows ; for example, suppose the light to be 
tested is three times the distance of the candle, its illuminating 
power is nine times as great. 


280 




THE CIVIL SERVICE. 


The officials and clerks—over 120,000 in all—by whom the 
people’s business in the administration of government is carried 
on, constitute the Civil Service. About 5,000 of these are ap¬ 
pointed by the President, alone or with the consent of the Sen¬ 
ate ; about 15,000 under what are known as the “Civil Service 
Rules,” but the great body of officeholders are appointed by 
heads of departments. 

Those employed in the civil service have always been theo¬ 
retically entitled to serve “during good behavior,” but practically, 
until within a few years, their positions have depended upon 
their allegiance to the political party in power. 

In 1883 Congress passed a law for the improvement of the 
civil service of the United States. This act provides for the 
appointment by the President of three commissioners to have gen¬ 
eral charge of filling the vacancies in the civil service depart¬ 
ment, and stipulates that the fitness of all applicants for all sub¬ 
ordinate positions in the departments at Washington, and in all 
custom-houses and postoffices having as many as 50 officeholders, 
shall be tested by examinations, and the positions assigned with 
reference to the capacity, education and character of the appli¬ 
cants, regardless of political preferences.^ 

According to this, no absolute appointment to office can be 
made until the applicant has proven his or her ability to fill the 
position satisfactorily by six months’ service ; no person habitu¬ 
ally using intoxicating beverages to excess shall be appointed to, 
or retained in, any office ; no recommendation which may be 
given by any Senator or member of the House of Representa¬ 
tives, except as to character and residence, shall be considered 
by the examiners; men and women shall receive the same pay 
for the same work. 

The general competitive examinations for admission to the 
service are limited to the following subjects : 1. Orthography, 

penmanship and copying. 2. Arithmetic—fundamental rules, 
fractions and percentage. 3. Interest, discount, and the elements 
of bookkeeping and of accounts. 4. Elements of the English 
language, letter writing, and the proper construction of sen¬ 
tences. 5. Elements of the geography, history and government 
of the U. S. 

A standing of 65 per cent, in the first three branches is neces¬ 
sary to qualify an applicant for appointment. Where special 
qualifications are necessary for specific work the examinations 
are adapted to test the knowledge of the applicant in that par¬ 
ticular line. 

No applicant will be examined who cannot furnish proof that 
he is of good moral character and in good health. 

There is a board of examiners in each of the principal cities of 

281 




LAND MEASURE—PUBLIC LANDS. 


the U. S., and several examinations are held each year. Appli¬ 
cations must be made on the regular “application paper,” which 
can be obtained of the commissioners, or any board of ex¬ 
aminers. 

Several of the States have adopted the principles laid down in 
the civil service act and applied them to the State civil service, 
and it is probably only a question of time when Civil Service 
Reform will be consummated throughout the U. S., and the 
public service will thereby be rendered much more efficient. 


United States Land Measure and Homestead Law. 

A township is 36 sections, each a mile square. A section 
is 640 acres. A quarter section, half a mile square, is 160 acres. 
An eighth section, half a mile long, north and south, and a 
quarter of a mile wide, is 80 
acres. A sixteenth section, a 
quarter of a mile square, is 40 
acres. 

The sections are all num¬ 
bered 1 to 36, commencing at 
north-east corner, thus: 

The sections are all divided 
in quarters, which are named 
by the cardinal points, as in 
section 1. The quarters are 
divided in the same way, as 
shown in the smaller dia¬ 
gram. The 
descrip¬ 
tion of a 

forty-acre lot would read: The south half 
of the west half of the south-west quarter of 
section 1 in township 24, north of range 7 
west, or as the case might be; and some¬ 
times will fall short and sometimes over¬ 
run the number of acres it is supposed to 
contain. 


Titles to the Public Lands—How Acquired. 

The public lands of the United States still unsold and open to 
settlement are divided into two classes, one class being sold by 
the Government for $1.25 per acre as the minimum price, the 
other at $2.50 per acre, being the alternate sections reserved by 
the United States in land grants to railroads, etc. Such tracts 
are sold upon application to the Land Register. Heads of 

282 


N W 

n.e 

N W 

N E 

N W 

n:w 

N E 

N E 

s w 

S E 

s w 

SE 

N W 

N W 

N E 

N E 

N W 

N E 

N W 

N E 

S W 

S W 

SE 

SE 

s w 

SIC 

s w 

SE 

s w 

sw 

SE 

S E 


6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

NW NE 

SW SE 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

17 

16 

15 

14 

13 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

21 

30 

29 

28 

27 

26 

25 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 







































STAGE FAVORITES. 

tamilies, or citizens over twenty-one years, who may settle 
upon any quarter section (or 160 acres) have the right under the 
pre-emption law of prior claim to purchase, on complying with 
the regulations. 

Under the homestead laws, any citizen, or intending citizen, 
has the right to 160 acres of the $1.25 land, or 80 acres of the 
$2.50 land, after an actual settlement and cultivation of the same 
for five years. Under the timber culture law, any settler who 
has cultivated for two years as much as five acres in trees of an 
80-acre homestead, or ten acres of a homestead of 160 acres, is 
entitled to a free patent for the land at the end of eight years. 


STAGE FAVORITES. 

The following is a carefully prepared list of stage favorites, 
giving the professional and private name of each: Fanny Dav¬ 
enport, Mrs. McDowell; Louise Pomeroy, Mrs. Arthur Elli¬ 
ott; Maggie Mitchell, Mrs. Henry Paddock; Rose Eytinge, Mrs. 
Cyril Searle; Rose Coghlan, Mrs. E. H. Edgerly; Margaret 
Mather, Margaret Miles; Kate Claxton, Mrs. Charles Steven¬ 
son; Effie Ellsler, Mrs. Frank Weston; Lillian Russell, Mrs. 
Edward Solomon; Agnes Booth, Mrs. John B. Schoeffel; Ida 
Mulle, Mrs. Benjamin Tuthill; Kate Castleton, Mrs. Harry 
Phillips; Lotta, Miss Charlotte Crabtree; Alice Atherton, Mrs. 
Willie Edouin; Minnie Maddern, Mrs. Le Grand White; Irene 
Perry, Mrs. Albert Weber; Minnie Palmer, Mrs. John R. 
Rogers; Marie Wainright, Mrs. Louis James; Marie Jansen, 
Mrs. James Barton; Laiwa Joyce, Mrs. Digby Bell; Minnie 
Conway, Mrs. Osmund Tearle; Dickie Lingard, Mrs. David 
Dalziell; Kittie Blanchard, Mrs. McKee Rankin; Louise Daven¬ 
port, Mrs. W. E. Sheridan; Louise Thorndyke, Mrs. D. Bouci- 
cault; Agnes Robertson, Mrs. D. Boucicault; Maude Granger, 

Mrs. Albert Follin; Marie Prescott, Mrs.-Perzel; Caroline 

Hill, Mrs. Herbert Kelcey; Minnie Hauk, Mrs. G. Von Hesse 
Wartegg; Lily West, Mrs. Harry Brown; Elbe Wilton, Mrs. 
Frank Wilton; Helen Dauvray, Mrs. J. M. Ward; Fay Temple¬ 
ton, Mrs. Howell; Modjeska, Mme. Helena Benda; Janauschek, 
Mrs. E. J. Pillott; Emma Abbott, Mrs. Eugene Wetherell; 
Marian Elmore, Mrs. Frank Losee; Ada Gray, Mrs. Charles 
Watkins; Lottie Church, Mrs. John A. Stevens; Sydney Cow¬ 
ell, Mrs. Geo. Giddens;. Annie Pixley, Mrs. Robert Fulford; 
Clara Morris, Mrs. F. C. Harriott; Julia Wilson, Mrs. Charles 
Fox; Dora Wiley, Mrs. Richard Golden; Lizzie May Ulmer, 
Mrs. George Ulmer; Mattie Vickers, Mrs. Charles Rogers; 
Theresa Vaughn, Mrs. William Mestayer; Albina de Mer, Mrs. 
M. B. Curtis; Alfa Norman, Mrs. Charles Byrne; Lizzie Harold, 
Mrs. W. S. Cornlay. 


283 




POINTS OF CRIMINAL LAW 


You cannot lawfully condone an offense by receiving back 
stolen property. 

The exemption of females from arrest applies only in civil, not 
in criminal matters. 

Every man is bound to obey the call of a Sheriff for assistance 
in making an arrest. 

The rule “Every man’s house is his castle” does not hold good 
when a man is accused of crime. 

Embezzlement can be charged only against a clerk or servant, 
or the officer or agent of a corporation. 

Bigamy cannot be proven in law if one party to a marriage has 
been absent and not heard from for five years. 

Grand larceny is when the value of property stolen exceeds 
$25.00—when less than that, the offense is petit larceny. 

Arson to be in the first degree must have been committed at 
night and the buildings fired must have been inhabited. 

Drunkenness is not a legal excuse for crime, but delirium 
tremens is considered by the law as a species of insanity. 

In a case of assault it is only necessary to prove an “offer or 
attempt at assault.” Battery presumes physical violence. 

Mayhem, although popularly supposed to refer to injury to 
the face, lip, tongue, eye, or ear, applies to any injury done a 
limb. 

A felony is a crime punishable by imprisonment in a State 
prison ; an “infamous” crime is one punishable with death or 
State prison. , 

A police officer is not authorized to make an arrest without a 
warrant unless he has personal knowledge of the offense for 
which the arrest is made. 

An accident is not a crime, unless criminal carelessness can be 
proven. A man shooting at a burglar and killing a member of 
his family is not a murderer. 

Burglary in the first degree can be committed only in the 
night time. Twilight, if dark enough to prevent distinguishing 
a man’s face, is the same as “night” in law. 

Murder to be in the first degree must be willful, premeditated 
and malicious, or committed while the murderer is engaged in a 
felonious act. The killing of a man in a duel is murder, and it is 
a misdemeanor to accept or give a challenge. 

False swearing is perjury in law only when willfully done, 
and when the oath has been legally administered. Such quali¬ 
fying expressions as “to the best of my belief,” “as I am in¬ 
formed,” may save an averment from being perjured. The law 
is that the false statement sworn to must be absolute. Suborna¬ 
tion of perjury is a felony. 


284 



THE TARIFF. 


Condensed List of U. S. Customs Duties. 


Animals for breeding purposes. 

“ otherwise.. 

Ale, Porter, and Beer in bottles. 

“ “ “ in casks. 

Books, Charts, new . 

“ for Colleges, Libraries, or 
printed more than 20 years, or in use 
abroad more than 1 year, and not for 

sale. 

Boots, Shoes, articles of Leather. 

Bronze, Manufactures of . . . . 

Carpets, Aubusson, Axminster and all 

woven whole for room. 

“ Brussels Tapestry, printed on the 

warp or otherwise. 

“ Brussels, wrought by the Jacquard 

machine. . 

“ Saxony, Wilton and Tournay Velvet 

wrought by Jacquard machine . 

“ Treble Ingrain, three-ply and Wors¬ 
ted China Venetian . 

“ Velvet, Patent or Tapestry, printed on 

the warp or otherwise . 

Carriages. 

China — Porcelain and Parian Ware, 

plain. 

“ gilded, ornamented or decorated. 

Cigars, Cheroots and Cigarettes. 

Clocks, and parts of. 

Clothing, wholly or in part wool. 

“ Linen..* 

“ Silk component. 

“ All other descriptions. 

Coal, Bituminous . 

Cutlery, Table, etc. 

“ Pen, Jack and Pocket Knives. 

Diamonds, unset. 

Engravings..,. 

Furniture. 

Furs, manufactured. 

Gilt and Plated Ware, etc. 

Glass Ware. 


(free on Consular 
( Certificate. 

20 per cent. 

35 cts. per gallon. 
20 cts. per gallon. 
25 per cent. 


free. 

30 per cent. 

45 per cent. 

(45 cts. per sq. yd. 
{ and 30 per cent. 
(30 cts. per sq. yd. 
] and 30 per cent. 
(44 cts. per sq. yd. 
| and 35 per cent. 
(45 cts. per sq. yd. 
I and 30 per cent, 
j 12 cts. per sq. yd. 
I and 30 per cent. 
(25 cts. per sq. yd. 
I and 30 per cent. 
35 per cent. 

55 per cent. 

60 per cent. 

($2.50 per lb. and 
l 25 per cent. 

30 per cent. 

(35 cts. per lb. and 

( 35 P er cent - 
40 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

75 cts. per ton. 

35 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

10 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

.35 per cent. 

30 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

45 per cent. 


285 


































THE TARIFF. 


Gloves, Kid.. 

Gold and Silver Ware, etc. 

Guns, Rifles, Muskets. 

“ Sporting... 

Hats and Bonnets of all kinds except 

wool. 

Hay. 

Iron, Pig and Scrap. 

“ Manufactures of. 

Jewelry, Gold, Silver or Imitation. 

“ Jet and Imitations of. 

Laces, Silk, and Silk and Cotton. 

“ Thread . 

Linen—Table, Towelling, etc. 

Machinery, Brass or Iron. 

“ Copper or Steel.. 

Musical Instruments . 

Oils—Animal and Olive. 

“ Castor. 

Paintings . 

“ If work of an American artist.... 

“ Frames for ditto. 

Photographs. 

Pipes—Meerschaum, Wood and of all other 
material except Common Clay (35 

per cent.).. 

Prints or Engravings. 

Rubber Boots, Shoes and other articles 

wholly of Rubber (not fabrics). 

“ Braces, Suspenders, Webbing, etc., 

unless in part silk.. 

“ Silk, cotton, worsted or leather. . .. 

Saddles and Harness. 

Shawls—Silk.. 

“ Camel’s Hair or other Wool. 

Silk—Dress and Piece .. 

Skins, Dressed. 

Snuff. 

Soap—Castile . 

“ Fancy, Perfumed, Toilet and Wind¬ 
sor. 

Statuarj', Marble. 

Stereoscopic Views on glass or paper. 

Spirits—Brandy, Whiskey, Gin, etc. 

286 


50 per cent. 

45 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

30 per cent. 

$2 per ton. 
$6.72 per ton. 
45 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

45 per cent. 

45 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

80 cts. per gal. 
30 per cent, 
free. 

30 per cent. 

25 per cent. 


70 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

30 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

35 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

(35 cents per lb. 
] and 40 per cent. 
50 per cent. 

20 per cent. 

50 cts. per lb. 

20 cts. per lb. 

15 cts. per lb. 

30 per cent. 

(40 and 25 per cent. 
} respectively. 

$2 per proof gal. 






































THE FREE LIST. 


Toys. 

Umbrellas—Silk or Alpaca. 

Velvet—Silk. 

Cotton or mostly cotton. 

Watches. 

Wines—All still Wines, such as Sherry, 

Claret or Hock, in casks. 

Ditto per case of 12 bottles. 

All Champagnes and Sparkling Wines 
in cases of 1 doz. quarts or 2 doz. 
pints.. 


35 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

50 per cent. 

40 per cent. 

25 per cent. 

50 cts. per gal. 
$1.60 per case. 


$7 per case. 

(and bottles extra, 
3 cts. each.) 


THE FREE EIST.—Articles Free of Duty 


Actors’ Costumes and Effects 
intended for personal use. 

Animals for breeding pur¬ 
poses. 

Antiquities not for sale. 

Articles and Tools of Trade. 

Art Works of American Art- 

Bed Feathers. [ists. 

Birds, Land and Water Fowl. 

Booksf printed over 20 years. 

Bullion, Gold and Silver. 

Coal, Anthracite. 

Cocoa, Crude. 

Coffee. 

Collections of Antiquities, etc., 
for use in Colleges, Mu¬ 
seums, Incorporated Socie- 

Diamonds, Rough. [ties, etc. 

Drugs, Crude, used in Dyeing 
or Tanning. 

Effects of American Citizens 
dying abroad, if accompa¬ 
nied by Consular Certificate. 

Engravings (engraved over 20 

Farina. [yrs. 

Fertilizers. 

Fruits and Nuts, green, ripe, 

Furs, Undressed. [dried. 

Hides, Raw. 


Household effects in use abroad 
over one year, and not for 
sale. 

India Rubber, Crude. 

Instruments, professional, in 
use. 

Macaroni and Vermicelli. 

Mineral Waters, Natural. 

Mother of Pearl, Unmanufac¬ 
tured. 

Natural History Specimens 
(not for sale). 

Newspapers. 

Periodicals. 

Personal effects when old and 
in use over one year.* 

Plants, Trees and Shrubs. 

Rags, not wool, for paper 
stock. 

Sausages, Bologna, German, 
Skins. 

Scientific Instruments for Col- 

Skins, Raw. [leges. 

Tapioca. 

Tea. 

United States Manufactures 
forwarded to Foreign Coun¬ 
tries and returned. 

Wax, Vegetable and Mineral. 


* Note. —Personal effects, when old and in use over one year, 

can be entered free, provided they accompany the owners, or the owners can take 
oath that they have arrived in the United States within one year prior to the date of 

287 













BOVINES VS. EQUINES. 

arrival of the goods, specifying steamer and date upon which they arrived*. If the 
owners have not arrived within the year, duty must be paid on appraisement. 
Household effects, books and libraries, if used abroad not less than one year, and 
not intended for any other person, nor for sale, are entitled to free entry, even if 
the owness have resided more than one year in the United States. Old clothing 
and household effects sent as presents are dutiable. Paintings, statuary and other 
works are embraced in the term “ household effects.” Horses, carriages and sad¬ 
dlery are now embraced in the term “ household effects.” Duty must be paid on all 
watches but one brought by a single passenger. Each passenger is entitled to 
bring with him fifty cigars. If above that quantity, they are liable to duty or seizure, 
as the case may arise. 


Bovines vs. Equines. —The differences anatomically and 
physiologically between the cattle tribe (Bos) and the horse 
family (Equus) is an interesting study. In parallel tables these 
can be seen at a glance. They have been condensed with a view 
of bringing the whole matter into a nutshell, so they may be 
understood at a glance: 


Cattle— 

H ave two toes. 

Horned. 

Have no mane.. 

Long hair in a tuft at end of tail ... 
Pawing with fore-feet denotes anger 

Seize forage with the tongue. 

Lips slightly movable. 

Have no upper incisor teeth. 

Lie down fore parts first.... . 

Rise on hind-legs first. 

Four stomachs. 

They chew the cud.. 

Have gall bladder. 

Mouth generally open when wearied. 

Defense by goring. 

Bellow or moo. 

Do not sweat. 

Have dewlap. 

No warts on inside of hind-legs. 

Never use teeth in fighting.. 

Do not retract the ears... 

Very rough tongue.. 

Short, broad head.. 

Wide, drooping ears. 

Limbs formed for strength. 

Do not roll in the dust... 

Sleep with both ears alike. 

Lie down to sleep. 

Eat and lie down to ruminate. 

Shoulders straight.. 


Horses— 

.. Have one toe. 

. .Without horns. 

. .Have flowing mane. 

..Tail covered with long hair. 

. .Pawing with fore-feet denotes hunger. 
.. Gather food with the lips. 

. .Lips very movable. 

.. Have upper and lower incisors. 

. .Lie down hind parts first. 

... Rise on fore-legs first. 

..One stomach. 

. .Do not chew the cud. 

. .Have no gall bladder. 

.. Mouth never open from exhaustion. 

. .Defense by kicking. 

. .Neigh or whinny. 

...Perspire easily. 

.. Have no dewlap. 

.. Hard, oval warts inside hind-legs. 
..Use the teeth in fighting. 

.. Retract the ears when angry. 

..Soft, smooth tongue. 

..Long, narrow head. 

. Erect, narrow ears. 

. .Limbs formed for speed. 

..Do roll in the dust. 

...Sleep with one ear forward. 

. .Often sleep standing. 

. .Never ruminate. Eat little and often. 
. .Shoulders sloping. 


Monarchs and Their End.—T he world has had 2,550 

kings or emperors of whom records are known, and who have reigned over seventy- 
four peoples. Of these rulers, 300 were overthrown, sixty-four were forced to abdi¬ 
cate, twenty-eight committed suicide, twenty-three became mad or imbecile, 100 
were killed in battle, 123 were captured by the enemy, twenty-five were tortured to 
death, 151 were assassinated, and 108 were executed. 

288 


































STOCK INVESTMENTS EXPLAINED. 


T HE CAPITAL of corporations is always divided into 
shares, usually of $100 each. These are known as stocky 
and represent an interest in the property and profits 
of the company. A dividend is the distribution of the profits, 
proportionate to number of shares held among the stockholders. 
Stock certificates are written instruments, signed by the proper 
officers of the company, and certifying that the holder is the 
owner of a certain number of shares. These are transferable, 
and may be bought and sold the same as other property. The 
sum for which each share or certificate was issued is the par 
value , and the amount for which it can be sold the market value. 

Preferred Stock takes preference of the ordinary stock of 
a corporation, and the holders are entitled to a stated per cent, 
annually out of net earnings before a dividend can be declared 
on common stock. Preferred stocks are generally the result of 
reorganization, although sometimes issued in payment of floating 
or unsecured debts. 

Watering Stock. —Sometimes the charter of a corporation 
forbids the declaring of a dividend exceeding a certain per cent, 
of the par value of its stock. In this case the directors may find 
it desirable to “water” the stock—that is, issue additional shares. 
This increase in the number of shares of course reduces the per¬ 
centage of dividend, although the same profit in the aggregate is 
secured to the stockholders. 

Dealing in Stocks. 

The person employing a broker to buy the stock is required to 
advance at the outset a certain per cent, of the purchase price of 
the stock, as security for possible losses by reason of a decline of 
the stock while in the broker’s hands. The amount of the mar¬ 
gin required is generally 10 per cent., but may be more or less, 
and frequently is nothing at all, depending on the broker’s confi¬ 
dence in his customer’s readiness to meet losses, if there be any. 

The broker then goes into the stock exchange and buys, of 
some selling broker the stock indicated, the buying broker him¬ 
self advancing the purchase money. 

The relation existing between the customer and the broker in 
a transaction of this kind may be briefly stated as follows: 

The broker agrees: i. That he will buy for his customer the 
stock indicated, at its market value. 2. That he will hold the 
stock for the benefit of his customer so long as the necessary 
margin is advanced, and kept paid, or until notice is given by 
either party that the transaction must be closed. 3. That he 
will at all times have the stock in his possession or under his con¬ 
trol; or an equal amount of other shares of the same stock, sub- 

289 



STOCKS AND BONDS. 


ject to the call of the customer. 4. That he will sell the shares 
on the order of the customer, on payment to him of the pur¬ 
chase price advanced by the broker, accounting to the customer 
for the proceeds of the sale. 5. That he will exercise proper 
care and competent skill in the services which he undertakes to 
perform. 

The customer agrees: 1. To pay the margin called for at the 
outset. 2. To keep good such margin according to the fluctua¬ 
tion of the market. 3. To take the stock purchased by his order 
when requested to do so bv the broker, paying the latter the dif¬ 
ference between the margin advanced and the sum paid for the 
stock by the broker, together with his commissions for doing the 
business. 

Although the broker’s money bought the stock, it belongs to 
the customer, together with all its earnings and dividends, while 
in the broker’s possession, and the customer is entitled to the 
possession of the stock on payment to the broker of the sum of 
money to which he is entitled. 

The broker may pledge the stock, or use it in his business, as 
collateral, but he must have it ready when called for by the cus¬ 
tomer, or other shares of the same stock equivalent in value. 

The customer and the broker may make an express agreement 
that the broker may sell the stock without notice to the customer 
in the case of a threatened decline. 

Generally speaking, when there are no directions as to selling, 
the broker will be protected if he can show that he followed the 
usual custom of brokers in like circumstances. 

If the customer fails to advance the necessary margin when 
called for on reasonable notice, the broker may sell for his own 
protection. 

The reasonable notice may be an hour, a day, or a week, de¬ 
pending on the condition of the market for that particular stock. 

If a broker fraudulently converts the stock to his own use, he 
is guilty of embezzlement. 

Bonds. 

A bond is in the nature of a promissory note—the obligation 
of a corporation, state, county or city to pay a certain sum of 
money at a certain time, with mterest'payable at fixed periods or 
upon certain conditions. 

The bond of a company may be a perfectly safe investment, 
when the stock is not; and the stock of a prosperous and suc¬ 
cessful company, paying large dividends or having a large sur¬ 
plus, may sell at a higher price than the bonds of the same com¬ 
pany, the income from which is limited to the agreed rate of in¬ 
terest which they bear. A much closer scrutiny should be made 

290 


BROKERAGE AND COMMISSION. 

of a company’s standing when one thinks of investing in its 
share capital, than when it is the intention to loan the company 
money on its mortgage bonds. 

Generally the bonds of business corporations are secured by 
mortgage, but some classes of bonds are dependent on the solv¬ 
ency or good faith of the company issuing them. 

The coupons attached to bonds represent the different install¬ 
ments of interest, and are to be cut off and collected from time 
to time as the interest becomes payable. Bonds are sometimes 
issued without coupons, and are then called registered bonds. 
Such bonds are payable only to the registered owner, and the in¬ 
terest on these is paid by check. Convertible bonds are such as 
contain provisions whereby they may be exchanged for stock, 
lands or other property. 

Bonds are known as First Mortgage, Second Mortgage, etc., 
Debentures, Consols, Convertible Land Grant, Sinking Fund, 
Adjustment, Income or otherwise, according to their priority of 
lien, the class of property upon which they are secured, etc. In¬ 
come bonds are generally bonds on which the interest is only 
payable it earned, and ordinarily are not secured by mortgage. 
Bonds are also named from the rate of interest they bear, or 
from the dates at which they are payable or redeemable, or from 
both; as, U. S. 4’s 1907, Virginia 6’s Western Union 7’s, coupon, 
1900, Lake Shore reg. 2d, 1903. 

Brokerage and Commission. 

A commission merchant, or factor, is an agent intrusted by 
his principal with goods to be sold, with the authority to deduct 
from the proceeds of the sales a certain sum agreed upon as com¬ 
pensation for his services, remitting the balance to his principal. 

Such an agent impliedly agrees to perform his duties in a care¬ 
ful and diligent manner, and to obey the orders and instructions 
which he receives from his principal so far as he is able. 

He is bound to exercise his judgment and discretion to the best 
advantage of his principal, and to render just and true accounts. 

In the absence of special instructions to the contrary, he has 
an implied authority to sell at such times, and at such prices, as 
in the exercise of his discretion he may deem for the best inter¬ 
ests of his principal. 

He may sell on credit, if it is customary so to do, among those 
in the same business, unless he has received orders to the con¬ 
trary. 

All profits made by him in handling his principal’s property or 
money, beyond his ordinary compensation, are for the benefit of 
the principal. 

He cannot himself be the purchaser of the goods intrusted to 

291 


TERMS USED ON ’ CHANGE . 


him to sell, unless he deals openly and fairly with his principal, 
and acquaints him with all the facts and circumstances material 
for him to know. 

Bankruptcy. 

Laws have been enacted in nearly all the States for the pur¬ 
pose of distributing the property of an insolvent debtor ratably 
among his creditors and discharging the debtor from further 
liability. Proceedings may be instituted by the debtor himself 
or by a creditor. As a general rule, proceedings in one State 
are not binding on a creditor residing in another State; but if 
Congress were to pass a national bankrupt law, this would annul 
all State laws on the subject, and proceedings under the national 
law would bind creditors in all the States and Territories. 

Insolvency proceedings are generally commenced by a peti¬ 
tion to the Judges of the court of insolvency, setting forth 
among other things the debtor’s inability to pay all his debts in 
full, and his desire to surrender all his property for the benefit 
of his creditors. 

If satisfied of the truth of matters alleged in the petition, the 
judge issues an order commanding the proper officer to take the 
debtor’s property and hold it until a certain time, when the cred¬ 
itors meet and choose an assignee. 

The assignee then takes charge of the property, turns it into 
money, and declares a dividend for the creditors. 

Pending the proceedings, the debtor may be examined on oath 
for the purpose of making him disclose all matters concerning 
his property and the disposal thereof. 

If the debtor has conformed to the insolvent law in all re¬ 
spects, he is entitled to a discharge from his debts, which is 
given him by the judge on the debtor’s obtaining the requisite 
assent from the creditors. 

In nearly all the States an insolvent debtor may, with the con¬ 
sent of his creditors, and in some States without such consent, 
assign all his property to a trustee for the benefit of his cred¬ 
itors, who converts it into money, dividing it pro rata among the 
creditors. 

Terms Used on ’Change. 

Accommodation Paper. —Notes or bills not representing an actual sale or trade 
transaction, but merely drawn to be discounted for the benefit of drawer, acceptor 
or indorsers, or all combined. 

Balance of Trade.— Difference in value between total imports and exports of 
a country. 

Ballooning.— To work up a stock far beyond its intrinsic worth, by favorable 
stories or fictitious sales. 

Bear.— One who strives to depress the price of stocks, etc., and for this reason 
“ goes short.” 

Buying Long. —Buying in expectation of a rise. 

Breadstuffs.— Any kind of grain, corn or meal. 

292 


THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. 


Broker. —An agent or factor; a middleman paid by commission. 

Brokerage. —A percentage for the purchase or sale of money and stocks. 

Bull.—A broker or dealer who believes that the value of stocks or breadstuff's 
will rise, and speculates for a rise. 

Call. —Demand for payment of installments due on stocks. 

Call.— A privilege given to another to “ call ” for delivery at a time and price 
fixed. 

Clique. —A combination of operators controlling large capital in order to unduly 
expand or break down the market. 

Collaterals. —Any kind of values given in pawn when money is borrowed. 

Corners. —The buying up of a large quantity of stocks or grain to raise the price. 
When the market is oversold, the shorts, if compelled to deliver, find themselves in 
a “ corner.” 

Curbstone Brokers. —Brokers or agents who are not members of any regular 
organization, and do businessmainly on the sidewalk. 

Delivery. — When stock or grain is brought to the buyer in exact accordance with 
the rules of the Exchange, it is called a good delivery. When there are irregulari¬ 
ties, the delivery is pronounced bad, and the buyer can appeal to the Exchange. 

Differences —The price at which a stock is bargained for and the rate or day of 
delivery are nc. usually the same, the variation being termed the difference. 

Factor. —An agent appointed to sell goods on commission 

Factorage. —Commissions allowed factors. 

Flat. —Inactive; depressed; dull. The fiat value of bonds and 6tocks is the 
value without interest. 

Flyer.—A small side operation, not employing one’s whole capital. 

Forcing Quotations is where brokers wish to keep up the price of a stock and to 
prevent its falling out of sight. This is generally accomplished by a small sale. 

Gunning a stock is to use every art to produce a break when it is known that a 
certain house is heavily supplied and would be unable to resist an attack. 

Kite-Flying. —Expanding one’s credit beyond wholesome limits. 

Lame Duck. —Stock-brokers’ slang for one unable to meet his liabilities. 

Long. —One is long when he carries stock or grain for a rise. 

Pointer. —A theory or fact regarding the market on which one bases a specula¬ 
tion. 

Pool. —The stock or money contributed by a clique to carry through a corner. 

Price Current. —The prevailing price of merchandise, stock or securities. 

Selling Short. —To “ sell short” is to sell for future delivery what one has not 
got, in hopes that prices will fall. 

Watering a stock is the art of doubling the quantity of stock without improving 
its quality. __ 

THE INTER-STATE COMMERCE LAW. 

The Inter-State Commerce Act is a law passed by Congress in 
18S7, for the regulation of rates and the management of inter¬ 
state commerce. It applies to carriers engaged in the transpor¬ 
tation of passengers or property wholly by railroad or partly bj r 
railroad and partly by water, from one "State, Territory or District 
of the United Stages to any other State, Territory or District, or 
to or from a foreign country. It provides for the appointment of 
a board of five commissioners, empowered to enquire into the 
management of the carriers and determine the reasonableness 
of their rates. A carrier whose line is entirely within a State is 
subject to the act so far as it makes or accepts through rates 
on inter-State commerce. 

Among other things the act requires that all charges shall be 
just and reasonable; that charges for a shorter distance shall not. 

293 





THE LA WS OF CHANCE. 


exceed those for a longer distance on the same line in the same 
direction, when the circumstances and conditions are similar; 
that there shall be no unjust discrimination as between persons 
or classes of traffic or localities, in the charges made or in the 
service rendered; that the rates charged for transportation shall 
be printed, filed with the Commission and kept for public 
inspection at the several stations, and that the carriers shall an¬ 
nually make a complete exhibit of their business to the Commis¬ 
sion. 

The act makes exceptions from its provisions of the carriage 
of property for the United States or for any State or municipal 
government, or for charitable purposes, or to or from fairs and 
expositions, and it allows of the issuing of mileage, excursion or 
commutation tickets, and admits of the giving of reduced rates to 
ministers of religion and free transportation to the officers and 
employes of the carrier, and to the principal officers of other 
carriers. 


The Laws of Chance. —Card-players who are continually 
bewailing their ill-luck of always receiving the same poor cards, 
will, perhaps, be reassured by knowing that the fifty-two cards, 
with thirteen to each of the four players, can be distributed in 
53,644,737,756,488,792,839,237,440,000 different ways, so that there 
would still be a good stock of combinations to draw from, even 
if a man from Adam’s' time had devoted himself to no other 
occupation than that of playing at cards. 


The Place Where the Sun Jumps a Day. —Chatham 
Island, lying off the coast of New Zealand, in the South Pacific 
Ocean, is peculiarly situated, as it is one of the habitable points 
of the globe where the day of the week changes. It is just in 
the line of demarkation between dates. There, at high 12 Sun¬ 
day, noon ceases, and instantly Monday meridian begins. Sun¬ 
day comes into a man’s house on the" east side and becomes 
Monday by the time it passes out the western door. A man sits 
down to his noonday dinner on Sunday, and it is Monday noon 
before he finishes it. There Saturday is Sunday and Sunday is 
Monday, and Monday becomes suddenly transferred into Tues¬ 
day. It is a good place for people who have lost much time, for 
by taking an early start they can always get a day ahead on 
Chatham Island. It took philosophers and geographers a long 
time to settle the puzzle of where Sunday noon ceased and 
Monday noon began with a man traveling west fifteen degrees 
an hour, or with the sun. It is to be hoped that the next 
English arctic expedition will settle the other mooted question:- 
“Where will one stop who travels northwest continuallv?” 

294 




INSURANCE 


A STOCK Insurance Company is one whose capital is 
owned by stockholders, they alone sharing the profits 
and they alone being liable for losses. The business of 
such a company, and also of a mixed company, is managed bv 
directors chosen by the stockholders. Policy-holders, unless at 
the same time stockholders, have no voice in the management 
of the company’s business or in the election of its officers. 

A Mutual Insurance Company is one in which the profits 
and losses are shared among the policy-holders (the insured.) 

Mixed Companies are a combination of the foregoing. In a 
mixed company all profits above a certain fixed dividend are 
usually divided among the policy-holders. 

Some mutual and mixed companies issue what are called non¬ 
participating policies. The holders of these do not share in the 
profits or losses. 

FIRE INSURANCE. 

Policies for fire insurance are generally issued for a period of 
one to five years. Ordinarily, in case of loss by fire, the 
insured will be paid the extent of his loss up to the amount of 
insurance, unless the insurance company prefer to replace or re¬ 
pair the damaged property, which privilege is usually reserved. 
If the policy contains the “average clause” the payment will 
cover only such portion of the loss as the amount of insurance 
bears to the value of the property insured. 

A Floating Policy is one which covers property stored in 
several buildings or places. The name is applied more particu¬ 
larly to policies which cover goods whose location may be 
changed in process of manufacture, or in the ordinary course of 
business. The “average clause” is a usual condition of policies 
of this class. 

Short Rates are rates for a term less than a year. If an insur¬ 
ance policy is terminated at the request of the policy-holder, 
the company retains the customary “short rates” for the time 
the policy has been in force, as shown by the following tables: 


Policy for 

1 year. 

Policy for 

2 years. 

| 

Policy fcr 

3 years. 

Policy for 

4 years. 

Policy for 

5 years. 

Charge this pro¬ 
portion of whole 
Premium. 

1 mo 

2 mo. 

3 mo. 

4 mo. 

5 mo. 

20 per cent. 

2 “ 

4 “ 

n 

8 “ 

10 “ 

30 

3 “ 

6 “ 

9 “ 

12 “ 

15 “ 

40 

4 “ 

8 “ 

12 “ 

16 “ 

20 “ 

50 

5 “ 

10 “ 

15 “ 

20 “ 

25 “ 

60 

6 “ 

12 “ 

18 “ 

24 “ 

30 “ 

70 

7 “ 

14 “ 

21 “ 

28 “ 

35 “ 

75 

8 “ 

16 “ 

24 “ 

32 “ 

40 “ 

80 

9 “ 

18 " 

27 “ 

36 “ 

45 “ 

85 

10 “ 

20 “ 

30 “ 

40 “ 

50 “ 

90 

11 u 

22 “ 

33 “ 

44 “ 

55 “ 

95 “ [295 
























INSURANCE. 


When a policy is terminated at the option of the company, a 
ratable portion of the premium is refunded for the unexpired 
term. 

LIFE INSURANCE. 

In ordinary life policies a certain premium is to be paid 
every year until the death of the insured, when the policy 
becomes payable to the beneficiary. There are other kinds ot 
policies, however, and these are described below: 

Limited Payment Life Policy. —Conditions: Premiums to be paid annually for a 
certain fixed number of years, or until the death of the insured, should that occur 
prior to the expiration of this period. Policy payable at death of the insured. 
Advantages: Payments on this kind of policy may all be made while the insured is 
best able to make them, and, if he live to an old age, the policy will not he a con¬ 
tinual burden, but will rather be a source of income, as the yearly dividends may be 
taken out in cash or added to the amount of insurance. 

Term Life Policy. —In this method of insurance, the insurance company agrees 
to pay to the beneficiaries a certain sum on the death of the insured, should that 
event occur within a fixed term. 

Endowment Policy. —A combination of a Term Life Policy and a Pure Endow¬ 
ment. These policies are issued for endowment periods of io, 15, 20, 25, 30 or 35 
years, and may be paid up by a single payment, by an annual premium during the 
endowment period, or by five or ten annual payments. Conditions: 1. Insurance 
during a stipulated period, payable at the death of the insured, should that event 
happen within said period. 2. An endowment of the same amount as the policy, 
payable to the insured, if still living at the end of the period fixed. Advantages: 
Limited term of payments; insurance during the time when the death of the insured 
would cause most embarrassment to his family; provision for old age, as the amount 
of the policy will be paid to the insured if still living, at a time when advanced age 
may make it of great benefit. 

Annuity Policies are secured by a single cash payment and insure the holder the 
yearly payment of a certain sum of money during life. 

Joint Life Policy. —An agreement to pay a certain sum on the death of any one 
of two or more persons thus insured. 

Non-forfeiting Folicies do not become void for non-payment of premiums. In 
some companies all limited payment life policies, and all endowment policies, after 
premiums for three (or two) years have been paid, and the original policy is sur¬ 
rendered within a certain time, provide for paid-up assurance for as many parts of 
the original amount assured as there shall have been complete annual premiums 
received in cash by the company. Some companies voluntarily apply all credited 
dividends to the continuance of the insurance. Others apply the legal reserve to 
the purchase of term insurance at regular rates. 

Special Forms. —The Reserve Endowment, Tontine Investment and other special 
policies guarantee to the holder a definite surrender value at the termination of 
certain periods. The surrender value of a policy is the amount in cash which the 
company will pay the holder of a policy on its surrender—the legal reserve less a 
certain per cent, for expenses. 

The Reserve of life insurance policies is the present value of 
the amount to be paid at death less the present value of all the 
net premiums to be paid in the future. 

The Reserve Fund of a life insurance company is that sum 
in hand which, invested at a given rate of interest, together with 
future premiums on existing policies, should be sufficient to meet 
all obligations as they become due. It is the sum of the separate 
reserves of the several policies outstanding. ' 

The Expectation of Life is the number of years which one 

296 


INSURANCE . 


may probably live. This average number of years has been de¬ 
termined from the experience of insurance companies. 


V 

uo 

< 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

u 
b 0 
< 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

0 

to 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

«i 

bfi 

< 

Expecta¬ 
tion in 
years. 

w" 

bfl 

< 

Expecta¬ 

tion in 
years. 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

40 

26.04 

60 

15.45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36.78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.61 

61 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.71 

22 

33.46 

42 

25-19 

62 

14.26 

82 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

63 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

1305 

84 

4.66 

5 

40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

65 

12.43 

85 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

46 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

48 

22.27 

68 

11.01 

88 

3.67 

9 

39.72 

29 

30.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

89 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

30 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

31 

29.83 

51 

20.61 

71- 

9.60 

91 

3.32 

12 

38.02 

32 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

13 

37.41 

33 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

73 

8.69 

93 

2.40 

14 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

94 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

35 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

95 

1.62 

16 

35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

76 

7.40 



17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 



18 

34.98 

38 

26.91 

58 

16.63 

78 

6.59 



19 

34.59 

39 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

79 

6.21 




MARINE AND TRANSIT INSURANCE. 

Insurance of vessels and their cargoes against the perils of 
navigation is termed Marine Insurance. 

Inland and Transit Insurance refer to insurance of merchan ¬ 
dise while being transported from place to place either by rail 
or water routes, or both. 

Insurance Certificates , showing that certain property has 
been insured and stating the amount of the insurance and the 
name of the party abroad who is authorized to make the settle¬ 
ment, are issued by marine companies. They are negotiable 
and are usually sent to the consignee of the merchandise to 
make the loss payable at the port of destination. 

The adjustment of marine policies in case of loss is on the 
same principle as the adjustment of fire policies containing the 
“average clause.” 

Open Policies are such upon which additional insurances 
may be entered at different times. 

Number of families in the United States (census of 1880), 
o,04.tr,016; average number to a square mile, 3.43. Number of 
dwellings, 8,955,842; average to the square mile, 3.02. Number 
of acres to a family, 186.62. Number of persons to a family, 
5.04. Number of persons to a dwelling, 5.6. 

Number of farms in the United States in 1880, 4,008,907; in 
1870, 2,659,985; in i860, 2,044,077; in 1850, 1,449,073. 

297 




















INTERNAL REVENUE. 

The internal revenue of the U. S. includes the taxes on 
spirits, tobacco, etc., and most of the receipts from national 
taxes, except customs duties and the receipts from the sale of 
public lands, patent fees, postal receipts, etc. 

The Constitution declares that Congress has the power “to 
lav and collect taxes, duties, imports and excises,” and that they 
shall be uniform throughout the U. S., and provides that direct 
taxes shall be apportioned among the States only in proportion 
to the population. 

At the close of the revolution raising money by internal 
taxation was hardly thought of, and at that time the condition of 
the people and manufactures would not warrant it. The first in¬ 
ternal revenue tax imposed by Congress was that of March 3, 
1791, on distilled spirits of domestic manufacture, the enforce¬ 
ment of which led to the whiskey insurrection. In 1798 the first 
direct tax of the kind, one of $2,000,000, was apportioned among 
the States, and it was proposed that it should be levied on 
dwelling-houses, slaves and land. 

All internal taxes were repealed in 1802 in accordance with 
the recommendation of President Jefferson, and no others were 
authorized until 1813, when the war with England necessitated an 
increased revenue. These taxes were continued a few years after 
the war, but were abolished, and none were levied until 1861. 

The civil war forced a renewal of the internal revenue system, 
and in 1861 a direct tax of $20,000,000 was apportioned among 
the States. On July 1, 1862, an act was passed levying taxes on 
all sorts and kinds of articles too numerous to mention. A few 
industries were taxed out of existence and all were more or less 
disturbed, but the people submitted without opposition. Great 
reductions were made after the war ceased, and at the present 
time the only subjects of internal revenue taxation are tobacco, 
spirits, fermented liquors, bank circulation and oleomarga¬ 
rine 

The following have always been exempt from taxation in the 
U. S.: 

Public property of both State and nation; the property of in¬ 
corporated institutions of learning; houses of worship; cemeteries 
and the personal property of individuals, so far as to cover the 
necessities of life. 

In 1792 the amount raised by internal revenue was $208,942; in 
1866, $309,226,813; in 1887, $118,837,301. 

You Cannot Count a Trillion. —It is impossible to count 
a trillion. Had Adam counted continuously from his creation 
to the present day, he would not have reached that number, for 
it would take him over 9,512 years. At the rate of 200 a minute, 
there could be counted 12,000 an hour, 288,000 a day, and 105,- 
120,000 a year. 298 



HINTS TO ADVERTISERS. 

The first thing for an advertiser to decide is the mediums 
which reach the desired class of customers. Cheap mediums do 
not, as a rule, bring good returns, neither does it follow that a 
periodical claiming a large circulation takes precedence over one 
with a less circulation. The tone of the publication and charac* 
ter of its readers determine much. A first-class periodical with 
a bona fide paid circulation is far more desirable than a much 
larger sample copy circulation. People who think enoughuof a 
publication to buy it are very apt to read it. 

Except in special cases, hand-bills and dodgers are of little or 
no account. 

The advertisement must be attractive, and if lasting results be 
desired, the goods must be as represented, and the advertisement 
honestly worded. 

The occasional advertiser reaps but meager results; ’tis the 
constant, persistent advertiser who reaps the most benefit. 

The secret of success in advertising lies largely in keeping the 
name and goods constantly before the eye of the public. 

Printer’s ink is beneficial, to any business, but common sense 
and good judgment are absolutely necessary. The shrewd ad¬ 
vertiser and successful business man exercises as much care and 
discretion in placing his advertisement as he does in buying his 
goods. 

HOW TO COLLECT A DEBT. 

Thousands of dollars are lost every day through negligence or 
carelessness of creditors. 

If there is a fixed date for payment, be on hand promptly to re¬ 
ceive it. 

If not paid, follow it up closely. 

If party cannot pay now, get a promise for another date of 
payment. Pleasant words and a genial bearing invariably are 
more effective than threats of legal measures. 

If the debtor lives near, call and express your urgent needs of 
money, etc. 

If you cannot get it all, take a part, and get a note for the bal¬ 
ance. Notes are more easily handled and collected than open 
accounts. 

If the debtor is irresponsible, get him to secure an indorser, so 
that you “can get the money on it at the bank,” etc. 

If possible, “know your man.” 

With some it is absolutely necessary to be sharp and positive, 
while the man who honestly intends to pay can be handled better 
bv pleasant words, though frank and business-like. 

* If a debtor is at a distance, write a courteous letter, inclosing 
bill or statement, requesting prompt settlement. 

If necessary, a second or third letter should be written. 

299 


HOW TO MAKE CHANGE QUICKLY. 

Always consider the amount of purchase as if that much 
money were already counted out, then add to amount of 
purchase enough small change to make even dollars, counting 
out the even dollars last until full amount is made up. 

If the purchase amounts to 57 cents, and you are handed $2.00 
in payment, countout 43 cents first to make an even dollar. Then 
lav out the other dollar. 

Should the purchase be $3.69, to be taken out of $20,00, begin 
with $3.69 as the basis and makeup even $4.00 by laying out 31 
cents. This 31 cents with the amount of the purchase you will 
consider as $4.00, and count out even dollars *to make up the 
$20.00 which the customer has handed in. 

MERCHANTS’ COST AND PRICE MARKS. 

All merchants use private cipher marks to note cost or selling 
price of goods. The cipher is usually made up from some short 
word or sentence of nine or ten letters, as: 

CORNELIUS, A. 
123456789 0 . 

Five dollars, according to this key, would be eaa. But gen¬ 
erally an extra letter is used to prevent repeating the mark for 0. 
If the sign for a second 0 in this case were y, we would have 
eay instead of eaa. 

TIME IN WHICH MO’NEY DOUBLES. 


Per 

Cent. 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

Per 

Cent. 

Simple Int. 

Comp. Int. 

2 

50 years. 

35 years. 

5 

20 years. 

14 yrs. 75 da. 

2^ 

40 years. 

28 yrs. 26 da. 

6 

16 yrs. 8mos. 

11 yrs. 327 da. 

3 

33 yrs. 4 mos. 

23 yrs. 164 da. 

7 

14 yrs. 104 da. 

10 yrs. 89 da. 

3 K 

28 yrs. 208 da. 

20 yrs. 54 da. 

8 

years. 

9 yrs. 2 da. 

4 

25 years. 

17 yrs. 246 da. 

9 

11 yrs. 40 da. 

8 yrs. 16 da. 

4 % 

22 yrs. 81 da. 

15 yrs. 273 da. 

10 

10 years. 

7 yrs.l 00 da. 


“ A Dollar Saved, a Dollar Earned. 

The way to accumulate money is to save small sums with 
regularity. A small sum saved daily for fifty years will grow at 


the following rate: 

Daily Savings. Result. 

One cent.$ 950 

Ten cents . 9,504 

Twenty cents. 19,006 

Thirty cents. 28,512 

Forty cents.. 38,015 

Fifty cents.. 47,520 


Daily Savings. Result. - 

Sixty cents .$ 57,024 

Seventy cents. 66,528 

Eighty cents. 76,032 

Ninety cents. 85,537 

One Dollar . 475,208 


300 




























SHORT INTEREST RULES. 


To find the interest on a given sum for any number of days, 
at any rate of interest, multiply the principal by the number of 
days and divide as follows: 

At 3 per cent., bv . . . 

At 4 per cent., by . . 

At 5 per cent., by . . 

At 6 per cent., by . . 

At 7 per cent., by . . . 

At 8 per cent., by 


120 

At 

9 

per 

cent., 

by • 

. 40 

90 

At 

10 

per 

cent., 

by. . 

. . 3 G 

72 

At 

12 

per 

cent., 

b y • 

. 30 

GO 

At 

15 

per 

cent., 

by . . 

. . 24 

52 

At 

20 

per 

cent., 

b y • 

. 18 

45 







TRADE DISCOUNTS. 

Wholesale houses usually invoice their goods to retailers at 
‘list” prices. List prices were once upon a time supposed to be 
retail prices, but of late a system of “long” list prices has come 
into vogue in many lines of trade—that is, the list price is made 
exorbitantly high, so that wholesalers can give enormous dis¬ 
counts. These discounts, whether large or small, are called 
trade discounts, and are usually deducted at a certain rate per 
cent, from the face of invoice. 

The amount of discount generally depends upon size of bill or 
terms of settlement, or both. Sometimes two or more discounts 
are allowed. Thus 30% and 5% is expressed 30 and 5, meaning 
first a discount of 30% and then 5% from the remainder. 

30 and 5 is not 35%, but IO > 5 anc * 3 oft' means three 

successive discounts. 

A wholesale house allowing 10, 5 and 3 off gets more for its 
goods than it would at 18 off. 


HOW TO DETECT COUNTERFEIT MONEY. 

In the space at disposal here, it is impossible of course to give 
a complete illustrated counterfeit detector, but the following 
simple rules, laid down by Bank Note Examiner Geo. R. Baker, 
will be found extremely valuable: 

Examine the f rm and features of all human figures; if graceful, and features 
distinct, examine the drapery. Notice whether the folds lie naturally, and observe 
whether the fine strands of the hair are plain and distinct 

Examine the lettering. In a genuine bill it is absolutely perfect. There has 
never been a counterfeit put out but was more or less defective in the lettering. 

Counterfeiters rarely, if ever, get the imprint or engraver’s name perfect. The 
shading in the background of the vignette and over and around the letters forming 
the name of the bank, on a good bill, is even and perfect; on a counterfeit it is un¬ 
even and imperfect. 

The die work around the figures of the denomination should be of the same 
character as the ornamental work surrounding it. 

Never take a bill deficient in any of these points. 


Big Trees. —Of ninety-two redwood trees in Calaveras Grove, 
Cal., ten are over thirty feet in diameter, and eighty-two have a 
diameter of from fifteen to thirty feet. Their ages are estimated 
at from 1,000 to 3,500 years. Their height ranges from 150 to 
237 feet. 


301 





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302 

































































FACTS ABOUT RAILROADS AND TRANSPORTATION. 


Twenty Points on American Railroading. 

i. There are in the United States 150,600 miles of railway— 
about half the mileage of the world. 2. The estimated cost is 
$9,000,000,000. 3. The number of people employed, by Ameri¬ 
can railways is more than 1,000,000. 4. The fastest time made 

by a train is 422 6-10 miles in 7 hours, 23 minutes (443 minutes), 
one mile being made in 47 11-29 seconds, on the West Shore 
Railroad, New York. 5. The cost of a high-class eight-wheel 

# passenger locomotive is about $8,500. 6. The 

longest mileage operated by a single system is 
that of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe—about 
S,ooo miles. 7. The cost of a palace sleeping-car 
is about $15,000, or $17,000 if “vestibuled.” 8. 
The longest railway bridge span in the United 
States is the Cantilever span in Poughkeepsie 
bridge—548 feet. 9. The highest railroad bridge in the United 
States is the Kinzua viaduct on the Erie road—305 feet high. 10. 
The first locomotive in the United States was built by Peter 
Cooper. 11. The road carrying the largest number of passengers 
is the Manhattan Elevated Railroad, New York—525,000 a day, 
or 191,625,000 yearly. 12. The average daily earning of an Ameri¬ 
can locomotive is about $100. 13. The longest American railway 

tunnel is the Hoosac, on the Fitchburgh railway—4% miles. 14. 
The average cost of constructing a mile of railroad at the pres¬ 
ent time is about $30,000. 15. The first sleeping-car was used 

upon the Cumberland Valley Railroad of Pennsylvania; from 
1836 to 1848. 16. The chances of fatal accident in rail¬ 

way travel are very slight—one killed in ten million. Statistics 
show more are killed by falling out of windows than in rail¬ 
way accidents. 17. The line of railway extending farthest east 
and west is the Canadian Pacific, running from Quebec to the 
Pacific Ocean. 18. A steel rail, with average wear, lasts 
about eighteen years. 19. The road carrying the largest number 
of commuters is the Illinois Central at Chicago—4,828,128 com¬ 
mutation fares in 1887. 20. The fastest time made between 

Jersey City and San Francisco is 3 days, 7 hours, 39 minutes and 
16 seconds. Special theatrical train, June, 1876. 

Train Management. 

(“ Standard Code.”) 

A train while running must display two green flags by day 
and two green lights by night, one on each side of the rear of 
the train. 

After sunset, or when obscured by fog or other cause, must 
display headlight in front and two red lights in rear. 

303 



RAILR OA DS A ND TRA NSP OR TA TION. 


Two green flags by day and two green lights by night, dis¬ 
played in the places provided for that purpose on the front of 
an engine, denote that the train is followed by another train 
running on the same schedule and entitled to the same time-table 
rights as thg train carrying the signals. 

Two white flags by day and two white lights by night, carried 
in the same manner, denote that the train is an extra. 

A blue flag by day and a blue light by night, placed on the 
end of a car, denotes that car inspectors are at work under or 
about the car or train and that it must not be coupled to or 
moved until the blue signal is removed. 



Swinging Lamp Signals. 


i. A lamp swung across the track is the signal to stop. 2. A 
lamp raised and lowered vertically is the signal to move ahead. 
3. A lamp swung vertically in a circle across the track, when 
the train is standing, is the signal to move back. 4. A lamp 
swung vertically in a circle at arm’s length across the track, 
when the train is running, is the signal that the train has 
parted. 

*** A flag, or the hand, moved in any of the directions given 
above, will indicate the same signal as given by a lamp. 

Colored Flag or Lantern Signals—Torpedoes. 

(“Standard Code.”) 

Red signifies danger. 

Green signifies caution, go slowly. 

White signifies safety. 

Green and white signifies stop at flag stations for passengers 
or freight. 

One cap or torpedo on rail means stop immediately. 

Two caps or torpedoes on rail means reduce speed immedi¬ 
ately and look out for danger signal. 

304 







Locomotive Whistle Signals. 

Just one long blast on the whistle,-this style, 

Is a sign of nearing town, 

A railroad crossing or junction, may be, 

And this the brakes whistled down. 

Two long-are just the reverse of the last. 

And this-the engine’s reply 

When word comes from the conductor to stop, — 

A sort of cheerful “Aye! aye!” 

These three-will show when the train comes apart. 

This-means two different things; 

That the train will back, or asks you to note 
Some special signal it brings. 

These four-belong to the flagman alone, 

And these-are meant for the crew; 

But this one-, when crossing a road at grade, 

More nearly interests you. 

Five short ones-say to the flagman on guard, 

"Look out for a rear attack!” 

And a lot like this-that a heedless cow 

Or a deaf man is on the track! 

D. B. Barnard. 

Speed on Railroads. 

Speed is hard to average. An average of 48 3-10 miles per 

hour is the fastest regular time in the United States. This is made on the Pennsyl¬ 
vania “ limited” in its run from Jersey City to Philadelphia, 90 miles, in 1x2 min- 
iutes. The Flying Dutchman train is supposed to make the fastest time in the 
world, between London and Bristol, 118% miles, in less than two hours. The 
average, however, of even this fast train is only 59miles per hour. There are 
several other trains noted for remarkably fast time on short distances. Sometimes 
a straight and even grade for a distance of 20 miles will permit a train to run at the 
rate of more than a mile a minute. One train on the Canadian Pacific road, from 
Cotaneau to Ottawa, averages 50 miles an hour for a distance of 78 miles. An aver¬ 
age of 38J4 miles an hour is considered fast traveling. 

The largest and fastest passenger engine ever built is said to have been turned 
out of the Rhode Island Locomotive Works, at Providence, for the New York, Pro¬ 
vidence & Boston Railroad Company. She was designed to make the run from 
Providence to Groton, Conn., a distance of 62^ miles, including a dead stop at 
Mystic draw-bridge, as required by the statutes of Connecticut, in just 62 % minutes, 
pulling at the same time eight cars, four of them Pullmans. 

Steamboating. 

The first idea of steam navigation was contained in a patent 

obtained in England by Hulls in 1736. 

Fitch experimented in steam navigation on the Delaware river in 1783-4. 

Oliver Evans was the next experimenter in steam navigation in 1785-6. 

Ramsey was also an experimenter in Virginia in steam navigation in 1787. 

W. Symington made a trial on the Forth and Clyde with a small but rudely con¬ 
structed model of a steamer in 1789. 

Chancellor Livingston built a steamer on the Hudson in 1797. 
The first experiment in steamboating on the Thames, Eng¬ 
land, was in 1801. 

Mr. Symington repeated his experiments on the Thames with 
success in 1802. 

Fulton built the steamer, the North River, and in 1807 made 
a passage up the Hudson river to Albany from New York in, 
thirty-three hours—the first steam navigation on record. 

The next steamboat was the Car of Neptune, in 1808. 

Fulton built the Orleans at Pittsburgh—the first steamer on 

305 
















FACTS ABOUT THE THERMOMETER. 


western rivers. It was completed, and made the voyage to New Orleans, 2,000 
miles, in 1811. 

The first steam vessels of Europe commenced plying on the Clyde in 1812. 

The Savannah, the first steamer to cross the ocean, was of 350 tons burden, and 
sailed for Liverpool from Savannah, Ga., July 15, 1819. 

Capt. Johnson was paid £10,000, or $50,000, for making the first steam voyage to 
India. The voyage was made on the steamer Enterprise, which sailed from Fal¬ 
mouth, England, Aug. 16, 1825. 

The first war steamer was built in England in 1838. 


Capacity of a Ten-Ton Freight Car. 


Whisky .60 barrels. 

Salt . 70 “ 

Lime. 70 “ 

Flour. 90 u 

Eggs.130 to 160 “ 

Flour . 200 sacks. 

Cattle.18 to 20 head. 

I logs . 50 to 60 ‘ 

Sheep .... ... 80 to 100 “ 


Lumber, green. 
Lumber, dry.. . 

Barley . 

Wheat. 

Apples. 

Corn. 

Potatoes. 

Oats. 

Bran . 


6,000 feet. 
10,000 feet. 
200 bush. 

34 ° “ 

370 “ 

400 “ 

43 ° “ 

680 “ 

1,000 “ 


Facts About the Thermometer. 



Reaumur. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Freezing Point . 

0 

0 

32 

Vine Cultivation. 

8 

10 

50 

Cotton Cultivation . .. 

. 16 

20 

68 

Temperature of Brazil. . 

.. 24 

30 

87 

Hatching Eggs. 

. . 32 

40 

104 


40 

50 

122 


48 

60 

140 

'• ■ HiJ - ' Cl* ’ f 1 

56 

70 

158 


64 

80 

176 


72 

90 

194 

Water boils . 

. . 80 

100 

212 


Ice melts at 32 0 ; temperature of globe, 50°; blood heat, 98°; alcohol boils, 174°; 
water boils, 212 0 ; lead melts, 594 0 ; heat of common fire, 1,140°; brass melts, 2,233°; 
iron melts, 3,479°. 

Comparison of Thermometric Scales. 

To convert the degrees of Centigrade into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, 
divide by 5, and add 32. 

To convert degrees of Centigrade into those of Reaumur, multiply by 4, and 
divide by 5. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Centigrade, deduct 32, multiply by 
5, and divide by 9. 

To convert degrees of Fahrenheit into those of Reaumur, deduct 32, divide by 
9, and multiply by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Centigrade, multiply by 5, and 
divide by 4. 

To convert degrees of Reaumur into those of Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide 
by 4, and add 32. 

In De Lisle’s thermometer, used in Russia, the gradation begins at boiling point, 
which is marked zero, and the freezing point is 150. 

1 306 























FREEZING, FUSING AND BOILING POINTS. 


Substances. 

Reaumur. 

Centi¬ 

grade. 

Fahren¬ 

heit. 

Freezing— 




Bromine freezes at. 

—160 

—20° 

— 4° 

Oil Anise.. 

8 

10 

50 

“ Olive. 

8 

10 

50 

“ Rose . 

12 

15 

60 

Quicksilver . 

—31.5 

—39.4 

—39 

Water . 

— 1 

0 

32 

Fusing— 

Bismuth metal fuses at. 

200 

264 

507 

Cadmium. 

218.8 

315 

592 

Copper. 

874.6 

1093 

2000 

Goid . 

961 

1200 

2200 

Iodine. ... . 

92 

115 

239 

Iron .. 

1230 

1538 

2800 

Lead. 

255.5 

325 

617 

Potassium. 

46 

58 

136 

Phosphorus. 

34 

44 

111 

Silver . 

816.8 

1021 

1870 

“ Nitrate. 

159 

198 

389 

Sodium. 

72 

90 

194 

Steel. 

1452 

1856 

3300 

Sulphur. 

72 

90 

194 

Tin. 

173 

230 

446 

Zinc . 

328 

410 

770 

Boiling— 




Alcohol boils at. 

63 

78 

173 

Bromine. 

50 

53 

145 

Ether. .... . 

28 

35 

95 

“ Nitrous. 

11 

14 

57 

Iodine. 

140 

175 

347 

Olive Oil . 

252 

315 

600 

Quicksilver. 

280 

350 

662 

Water . 

80 

100 

212 


Dangers of Foul Air.— If the condensed breath collected 
on the cool window panes of a room where a number of persons 
have been assembled be burned, a smell as of singed hair will 
show the presence of organic matter, and if the condens&d breath 
be allowed to remain on the windows for a few days, it will be 
found, on examination by the microscope, that it is alive with 
animaculae. It is the inhalation of air containing such putrescent 
matter which causes half of the sick headaches, which might be 
avoid'' i by a circulation of fresh air 

307 













































FREEZING MIXTURES WITHOUT ICE. 

Use water not warmer than 50 0 Fahrenheit. 


Mixtures. 


Down 

to 

Change 

Nitrate Ammonia, > each one t .1 

Water, j r ) 


50° 

40 

46° 

“ 0 fpo™t 1 eaChfiVe P artS . I 

Water, sixteen parts.’ 

Muriate Ammonia, ) each fiye $ ' 

Nitrate of Potash, J r 

1 

50 

10 

40 

) 

l 

50 

A 

46 

Sulphate of Soda, eight parts. 

Water, sixteen parts. . 

Sulphate of Soda, three parts. jf 

r 

) 

_ 3 

50 

53 

Dilute Nitric Acid, two parts.j 

Nitrate of Ammonia, ) ) 

1 




Carbonate Soda, V each one part 

Water, ) 

Phosphate Soda, nine parts .) 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts.\ 

Sulphate of soda, five parts.j 

Dilute Sulphuric Acid, four parts.) 

Sulphate of Soda, six parts.' 

Muriate Ammonia, four parts. 

Nitrate of Potash, two parts.. 

i 

50 

50 

— 7 

—12 

57 

62 

50 

3 

47 




50 

—10 

60 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts. 

Sulphate of Soda, six parts.j 

Nitrate of Ammonia, five parts. 

Dilute Nitric Acid, four parts. 

) 

) 

50 

—14 

64 


THE HEBREW RACE. 

The Hebrew race is distributed over the Eastern continent as 
follows : 

In Europe there are 5,400,000; in France, 63,000; Germany, 
562,000, of which Alsace-Loraine contains 39,000 ; Austro- 
Hungary, 1,544,000; Italy, 40,000; Netherlands, 82,000; Rou- 
mania, 265,000 ; Russia, 2,552,000 ; Turkey, 105.000, and in other 
countries 35,000, Belgium containing the smallest number, only 

3 ,° 0 °. 

In Asia there are 319,000 ; Asiatic Turkey, 47,000, in Palestine 
there being 25,000 ; Asiatic Russia, 47,000 ; Persia, 18,000 ; Mid¬ 
dle Asia, 14,000; India, 19,000, and China, 1,000. 

Africa contains 350,000 ; Egypt, 8,000 ; Tunis, 55,000 ; Algiers, 
35,000 ; Morocco, 60,000 ; Tripoli, 6,000, and Abyssinia, 200,000. 

The entire number of Hebrews in the world is nearly 6,300,000. 

308 
































PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 


T HE principal methods of developing the physique now pre¬ 
scribed by trainers are exercise with dumbbells, the bar bell 
and the chest weight. The rings and horizontal and paral¬ 
lel bars are also used,but not nearly to the extent that they formerly 
were. The movement has been all in the direction of the sim¬ 
plification of apparatus; in fact, one well-known teacher of the 
Boston Gymnasium when asked his opinion said: “Four bare 
walls and a floor, with a well-posted instructor, is all that is 
really required for a gymnasium.” 

Probably the most important as well as the simplest appliance 
for gymnasium work is the wooden dumbbell, which has dis¬ 
placed the ponderous iron bell of former days. Its weight is 
from three-quarters of a pound to a pound and a half, 
and with one in each hand a variety of motions can be gone 
through, which are of immense benefit in building up or toning 
down everj r muscle and all vital parts of the body. 

The first object of an instructor in taking a beginner in hand 
is to increase the circulation. This is done by exercising the ex¬ 
tremities, the first movement being one of the hands, after 
which come the wrists, then the arms, and next the head and 
feet. As the circulation is increased the necessity for a larger 
supply of oxygen, technically called “oxygen-hunger,” is created, 
which is only satisfied by breathing exercises, which develop 
the lungs. After the circulation is in a satisfactory condition, 
the dumbbell instructor turns his attention to exercising the 
great muscles of the body, beginning with those of the back, 
strengthening which holds the body erect,thus increasing the chest 
capacity, invigorating the digestive organs, and, in fact, all the 
vital functions. By the use of very light weights an equal and 
symmetrical development of all parts of the body is obtained, 
and then there are no sudden demands bn the heart and lungs. 

After the dumbbell comes exercise with the round, or bar 
bell. This is like the dumbbell, with the exception that the bar 
connecting the balls is four or five feet, instead of a few inches 
in length. Bar bells weigh from one to two pounds each, and 
are found most useful in building up the respiratory and diges¬ 
tive systems, their especial province being the strengthening of 
the erector muscles and increasing the flexibility of the chest. 

Of all fixed apparatus in use the pulley weight stands easily 
first in importance. These weights are available for a greater 
variety of objects than any other gymnastic appliance, and can 
be used either for general exercise or for strengthening such 
muscles as most require it. With them a greater localization is 
possible than with the dumbbell, and for this reason they are 
recommended as a kind of supplement to the latter. As chest de- 

309 




i. The bar bell—chest expander. 2. Anterior muscular de¬ 
veloper. 3. Developing loins and lumbar region—aid to diges¬ 
tion. 4. Side and loin development. 5. Giant pulley exercise 
—for elevating right side of chest. 6. Developing muscles that 
hold the shoulders back. 7. Developing muscles of front upper 
chest. 8. Posterior development—to make one erect. [310 





















































PHYSICAL EXERCISE. 


velopers and correctors of round shoulders they are most effec¬ 
tive. As the name implies, they are simply weights attached to 
ropes, which pass over pulleys, and are provided with handles. 
The common pulley is placed at about the height of the shoulder 
of an average man, but recently those which can be adjusted to 
any desired height have been very generally introduced. 

When more special localization is desired than can be ob¬ 
tained by means of the ordinary apparatus, what is known as the 
double-action chest weight is used. This differs from the or¬ 
dinary kind in being provided with several pulleys, so that the 
strain may come at different angles. Double-action weights 
may be divided into three classes—high, low and side pulleys— 
each with its particular use. 

The highest of all, known as the giant pulleys, are made es¬ 
pecially for developing the muscles of the back and chest, and by 
stretching'or elongating movements to increase the interior 
capacity of the chest. If the front of the chest is full and the 
back or side chest deficient, the pupil is set to work on the giant 
pulley. To build up the side-walls he stands with the back to 
the pulley-box and the left heel resting against it; the handle is 
grasped in the right hand if the right side of the chest is lacking 
in development, and then drawn straight dpwn by the side; a 
step forward with the right foot, as long as possible, is taken, the 
line brought as far to the front and near the floor as can be done, 
and then the arm, held stiff, allowed to be drawn slowly up by 
the weight. To exercise the left side the same process is gone 
through Avith, the handle grasped in the left hand. Another 
kind of giant pulley is that which allows the operator to stand 
directly under it, and is used for increasing the lateral diameter 
of the chest. The handles are drawn straight down by the sides, 
the arms are then spread and drawn back by the weights. Gen¬ 
erally speaking, high pulleys are most used for correcting high, 
round shoulders; low pulleys for low, round shoulders; side pul¬ 
leys for individual high or low shoulders, and giant pulleys for 
the development of the walls of the chest and to correct spinal 
curvature. 

The traveling rings, a line of iron rings covered with rubber 
and attached to long ropes fastened to the ceiling some ten feet 
apart, are also valuable in developing the muscles of the back, 
arms and sides. The first ring is grasped in one hand and a 
spring taken from an elevated platform. The momentum carries 
the gymnast to the next ring, which is seized with the free hand, 
and so the entire length of the line is traversed. The parallel 
bars, low and high, the flying rings, the horizontal bar and the 
trapeze all have their uses, but of late years they have been rele¬ 
gated to a position of distinct inferiority to that now occcupied 
by the dumbbells and pulley weights. [ 311 ] 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE 


Diseases aid tleir Remedies.—Prescriptions 1 y Eminent Practitioners. 

I T should be clearly understood, that in all cases of disease, 
the advice of a skillful physician is of the first importance. 
It is not, therefore, intended by the following information 
to supersede the important and necessary practice of the medi¬ 
cal man; but rather, by exhibiting the treatment required, to 
show in what degree his aid is imperative. In cases, however, 
where the disorder may be simple or transient, or in which re¬ 
mote residence, or other circumstances, may deny the privilege 
of medical attendance, the following particulars will be found 
of the utmost value. Moreover, the hints given upon what 
should be avoided will be of great service to the patient, since 
the physiological is no less important than the medical treatment 
of disease. The numbers refer to prescriptions on pp. 315-318. 

Apoplexy— Lay the head upon a bag of pounded ice, imme¬ 
diate and large bleeding from the arm, cupping neck, leeches to the temples, aperi¬ 
ents Nos. 1 and 7, one or two drops of cotton oil rubbed or dropped on the tongue. 
Avoid excesses, intemperance, animal food. 

Bile, Bilious,or Liver Complaints— Abstinence from malt 

liquor, cool homoeopathic cocoa for drink, no tea or coffee, few vegetables, no broths 
or soups; lean juicy meat not overcooked for dinner, with stale bread occasionally 
and a slice of toasted bacon for breakfast. Nos. 44 and 45. 

Chicken Pox— Mild aperients, No. 4, succeeded by No. 7, and 

No. 8, if much fever accompany the eruption. 

Chilblains —Warm, dry woolen clothing to exposed parts in 
cold weather, as a preventive. In the first stage, friction with No. 48, used cold. 
When ulcers form they should be washed twice daily with carbolic soap and dressed 
with benzoted zinc ointment. Or, chilblains in every stage, whether of simple in¬ 
flammation or open ulcer, may always be successfully treated by Goulard’s extract, 
used pure or applied on lint twice a day. 

Common Continued Fever —Aperients; in the commence¬ 
ment No. x, followed by No. 7; then diaphoretics. No. 8, and afterwards tonics. No. 
13, in the stage of weakness. Avoid all excesses. 

Common Cough —The linctus, No. 42 or No. 43, abstinence 

from malt liquor, and protection from cold, damp air. Avoid cold, damp, and 
draughts. 

Constipation —The observance of a regular period of evac¬ 
uating the bowels, which is most proper in the morning after breakfast. The use of 
mild aperients, No. 37, and brown bread instead of white. There should be an entire 
change in the dietary for a few days while taking opening medicine. 

Consumption —The disease may be complicated with various 

morbid conditions of the lungs and heart, which require appropriate treatment. 
Take cod liver oil, malt and whisky. To allay the cough, No. 32 is an admirable 
remedy. Avoid cold, damp, excitement and over-exertion. 

Convulsions (Children) —If during teething, free lancing 

of the gums, the warm bath, cold applications to the head, leeches to the temples, an 
emetic, and a laxative clyster. No. 20. 

Croup —Leeches to the throat, with hot fomentations as long 

as the attack lasts; the emetic, No. 16, afterwards the aperient, No. 5. Avoid cold 
and damp. Keep the air in the sick-room moistened with steam. 

A Simple Croup Remedy. —Take the white of an egg, stir it 

312 



MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 


thoroughly into a small quantity of sweetened water, and give it in repeated doses 
until a cure is effected. If one egg is not sufficient, a second, or even a third should 
be used. 

Dropsy —Evacuate the water by means of No. io, and by rub¬ 
bing camphorated oil into the body night and morning. 

Epilepsy —If accompanied or produced by fullness of the ves¬ 
sels of the head, leeches to the temples, blisters, and No. \ and No. 7. If from de¬ 
bility or confirmed epilepsy, the mixture No. 18. Avoid drinking and excitement. 
Let the patient alone during the convulsion. 

Eruptions on the Face —The powder, No. 30, internally, 
sponging the face with the lotion No. 31. Avoid excesses in diet. 

Erysipelas —Aperients, if the patient be strong, No. 1, fol¬ 
lowed by No. 7, then tonics. No. 27. No. 27 may be used from the commencement 
for weak subjects. 

Faintness —Effusion of cold water on the face, stimulants to 

the nostrils, pure air, and the recumbent position; afterwards, avoidance of the excit¬ 
ing cause. Avoid excitement. 

Frost-bite and Frozen Limbs —No heating or stimulating 

liquors must be given. Rub the parts affected with ice, cold, or snow water, and 
lay the patient on a cold bed. 

Gout —The aperients No. 1, followed by No. 24, bathing the 
parts with gin-and-water; for drink, weak tea or coffee. Warmth by flannels. Ab¬ 
stain from wines, spirits, and animal food 

Gravel —No. 5, followed by No. 7, the free use of magnesia as 

an aperient. The pill No. 22. Abstain from fermented drinks and hard water. 
Another form of gravel must be treated by mineral acids, given three times a day. 

Whooping Cough —Whooping cough may be complicated 

with congestion or inflammation of the lungs, or convulsions, and then becomes a 
serious disease. If uncomplicated, No. 43. 

Hysterics —The fit may be prevented by the administration 

of thirty drops of laudanum, and as many of ether. When it has taken place, open 
the windows, loosen the tight parts of the dress, sprinkle cold water on the face, etc. 
A glass of wine or cold water when the patient can swallow. Avoid excitement and 
tight lacing. 

Indigestion —The pills No. 2,. with the mixture No. iS, at the 

same time abstinence from veal, pork, mackerel, salmon, pastry, and beer; for drink, 
homoeopathic cocoa, a glass of cold spring water the first thing every morning. 
Avoid excesses. 

Inflammation of the Bladder —Aperients No, 5 and No. 

7, the warm bath, afterwards opium; the pill No. n, three times adaytdl relieved. 
Avoid fermented liquors, etc. Large quantities of water should be taken, especially 
spring water containing lithia. 

Inflammation of the Bowels —Leeches, blisters, fomenta¬ 
tions, hot baths, iced drinks, the pills No. 19; move the bowels with clysters, if neces¬ 
sary, No. 20. Avoid cold, indigestible food, etc. 

Inflammation of the Brain —Application of cold to the 

head, bleeding from the temples or back of the neck by leeches or cupping; aper¬ 
ients No. 1, followed by No. 7, No. 15. Avoid excitement, study, intemperance. 

Inflammation of the Kidneys —Leeches over the seat of 

pain, aperients No. 5, followed by No. 49; the warm bath. Avoid violent exercise, 
rich living. 

Inflammation of the Liver —Leeches over the right side, 

the seat of pain, blisters, aperients No. 1, followed by No. 7, afterwards the pills No. 
19, till the gums are slightly tender. Avoid cold, damp, intemperance, and anxiety. 

Inflammation of the Lungs —Leeches to seat of pain, 

313 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 


succeeded by a blister; the demulcent mixture. No. 14, to allay the cough, with the 
powders No. 15, whisky and milk. Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. 

Inflammation of the Stomach —Leeches to the pit of the 

stomach, followed by fomentations, cold iced water for drink, bowels to be evacuated 
by clysters; abstinence from all food except cold gruel, milk and water. Avoid ex¬ 
cesses and condiments. 

Inflammatory Sore Throat —Leeches and blisters ex¬ 
ternally, aperients No. 1, followed by number 7; gargle to clear the throat, No. 17. 
Avoid cold, damp, and draughts. 

Inflamed Eyes —The bowels to be regulated by No. 5, drop 

5% cocaine solution in the eye every three or four hours, the eye to be bathed with 
No. 35. 

Influenza —No. 4 as an aperient and diaphoretic. No. 14 

to allay fever and cough. No. 28 as a tonic, when weakness only remains. Avoid 
cold and damp, use clothing suited to the changes of temperature. 

Intermittent Fever, or Ague —Take No. 13 during the 

intermission of the paroxysm of the fever; keeping the bowels free with a wine glass 
of No. 7. Avoid bad air, stagnant pools, etc. 

Itch —The ointment No. 28, or lotion No. 29. 

Jaundice —The pills No. 1, afterwards the mixture No. 7, 

drinking freely of dandelion tea. 

Looseness of the Bowels (English Cholera) —One pill 
No. 19, repeated if necessary; afterwards the mixture No. 21. Avoid unripe fruits, 
acid drinks, ginger beer; wrap flannel around the abdomen. 

Measles —A well-ventilated room, aperients No. 4, with 

No. 14 to allay the cough and fever. 

Menstruation (Excessive) —No. 40 during the attack, 

with rest in the recumbent position; in the intervals, No. 39. 

Menstruation (Scanty) —In strong patients, cupping the 

loins, exercise in the open air, No. 40, the feet in warm water before the expected 
period, the pills No. 38; in weak subjects No. 39. Gentle and regular exercise. 
Avoid hot rooms, and too much sleep. In cases of this descrir tion it is desirable to 
apply to a medical man for advice. It may be useful to many to point out that penny¬ 
royal tea is a simple and useful medicine for inducing the desired result. 

Menstruation (Painful) —No. 41 during the attack; in 

the intervals. No. 38 twice a week, with No. 39. Avoid cold, mental excite¬ 
ment, etc. 

Mumps —Fomentation with a decoction of camomiles and 

poppy heads; No. 4 as an aperient, and No. 9 during the stage of fever. Avoid 
cold, and attend to the regularity of the bowels. 

Nervousness —Cheerful society, early rising, exercise in the 
open air, particularly on horseback, and No. 12. Avoid excitement, study, and late 
meals. 

Palpitation of the Heart —The pills No. 2, with the 

mixture No. 12. 

Piles —The paste No. 34, at the same time a regulated diet. 

When the piles are external, or can be reached, one or two applications of Goulard’s 
extract, with an occasional dose of lenitive electuary, will generally succeed in cur¬ 
ing them. 

Quinsy— A blister applied all around the throat; an emetic, 

No. 16, commonly succeeds in breaking the abscess; alterwards the gargle No. 17. 
Avoid cold and damp. 

Rheumatism —Bathe the affected parts with No. 23, and take 

internally No. 24, with No. 25 at bedtime, to ease pain, etc. Avoid damp and cold, 
wear flannel. 


314 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 

Rickets —The powder No. 33, a dry, pure atmosphere, a 

nourishing diet. 

Ringworm— 1 he lotion No. 32, with the occasional use of the 
powder No. 5. Fresh air and cleanliness 

Scarlet Fever —Well-ventilated room, sponging the body 

when hot with cold or tepid vinegar, or spirit and water, aperients. No. 4; diapho¬ 
retics, No. 8. If dropsy succeed the disappearance of the eruption, frequent purg¬ 
ing with No. 5, succeeded by No. 7. 

Scrofula —Pure air, light but warm clothing, diet of fresh 
animal food; bowels to be regulated by No. 6 and No. 26, taken regularly for a con¬ 
siderable time. 

Scurvy —Fresh animal and vegetable food, and the free use 
of ripe fruits and lemon juice. Avoid cold and damp. 

Smallpox —A well-ventilated apartment, mild aperients; if 

fever be present, No. 7, succeeded by diaphoretics No. 8, and tonics No. 13 in the 
stage of debility, or decline of the eruption. 

St. Vitus Dance —The occasional use, in the commence¬ 
ment, of No. 5, followed by No. 7, afterwards No 46. 

Thrush —One of the powders No. 6 every other night; in the 
intervals a dessertspoonful of the mixture No. 18 three times a day; white spots to 
be dressed with the honey of borax. 

Tic Doloreux —Regulate the bowels with No. 3, and take, 

in the intervals of pain, No. 27. Avoid cold, damp, and mental anxiety. 

Toothache —Continue the use of No. 3 for a few alternate 

days. Apply liquor ammoniac to reduce the pain, and when that is accomplished, 
fill the decayed spots with silver succedaneum without delay, or the pain will re¬ 
turn. A drop of creosote, or a few drops of chloroform on cotton, applied to the 
tooth, or a few grains of camphor placed in the decayed opening, or camphor moist¬ 
ened with turpentine, will often afford instant relief. 

Typhus Fever —Sponging the body with cold or tepid water, 
a well-ventilated apartment, cold applications to the head and temples. Aperients 
No. 4, with refrigerants No. 9, tonics No. 13 in the stage of debility. 

Water on the Brain —Local bleeding by means of leeches, 

blisters, aperients No. 5, and mercurial medicines, No. 15. 

Whites —The mixture No. 36, with the injection No. 37. 

Clothing light but warm, moderate exercise in the open air, country residence. 

Worms in the Intestines —The aperient No. 5, followed 

by No. 7, afterwards the free use of lime water and milk in equal parts, a pint daily. 
Avoid unwholesome food. 


PRESCRIPTIONS. 

To be used in the cases e 7 uunerated under the head “Diseases ” 

(pages 312 —S 15 .) 

The following prescriptions, originally derived from various 
prescribes’ Pharmacopoeias, and now carefully revised, embody 
the favorite remedies employed by the most eminent physicians: 

1. Take of powdered aloes, nine grains; extract of colocynth, 
compound, eighteen grains; calomel, nine grains; tartrate of antimony, two grains; 
mucilage, sufficient to make a mass, which is divided into six pills; two to be taken 
every twenty-four hours, till they act thoroughly on the bowels; in cases of inflam¬ 
mation, apoplexy, etc. 

2. Powdered rhubarb, Socotrine aloes, and gum mastic, each 

one scruple; make into twelve pills; one before and one after dinner, 

315 



MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


3. Compound extractor colocynth, extract of jalap, and Castile 

soap, of each one scruple; make into twelve pills. 

4 . James’ powder, five grains; calomel, three grains; in fevers, 
for adults. For children, the following: Powdered camphor, one scruple; calomel 
and powdered scammony, of each nine grains; James’ powder, six grains; mix, and 
divide into six powders. Half of one powder twice a day for an infant a year old; a 
whole powder for two years; and for four years, the same three times a day. 

5. James’ powder, six grains; powdered jalap, ten grains; mix, 
and divide into three or four powders, according to the child’s age; in one powder if 
for an adult. 

6. Powdered rhubarb, four grains; mercury and chalk, three 

grains; ginger in powder, one grain; an alterative aperient for children. 

7 . Fluid extract cascara, six drams; tincture aloes four 
drams; tincture hyoscyamus, four drams; neutralizing cordial, two ounces; 
dessertspoonful every four hours until the bowels move freely. 

8. Nitrate of potass, one dram and a half; spirits of nitric 

ether, half an ounce; camphor mixture, and the spirit of mindererus, each four ounces; 
in fevers, etc.; two tablespoonfuls, three times a day, and for children a dessert¬ 
spoonful every four hours. 

9 . Spirit of nitric ether, three drams; dilute nitric acid, two 

drams; syrup, three drams: camphor mixture, seven ounces; in fevers, etc., 
with debility; dose as in preceding prescription. 

10. Decoction of broom, half a pint; cream of tartar, one 

ounce; tincture of squills, two drams; in dropsies; a third part three times a day. 

11. Pills of soap and opium, five grains for a dose, as directed. 
. 12. Ammoniated tincture of valerian, six drams; camphor 
mixture, seven ounces; a fourth part three times a day; in spasmodic and hysterical 
disorders. 

13 . Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, 

twenty drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every 
four hours, in intermittentand other fevers, during the absence of the paroxysm. 

14 . Almond mixture, seven ounces and a half; wine of an¬ 
timony and ipecacuanha, of each one dram and a half; a tablespoonful every four 
hours; in cough with fever, etc. 

15 . Calomel, one grain; powdered white sugar, two grains; 
to make a powder to be placed on the tongue every two or three hours. Should the 
calomel act on the bowels, powdered kino is to be substituted for the sugar. 

16 . Antimony and ipecacuanha wines, of each an ounce; a 

teaspoonful every ten minutes for a child till vomiting is produced; but for an adult 
a large tablespoonful should be taken. 

17 . Compound infusion of roses, seven ounces; tincture of 

myrrh, one ounce. 

18 . Infusion of orange peel, seven ounces; tincture of hops, 

half an ounce; and a dram of carbonate of soda; two tablespoonfuls twice a day. 
Or infusion of valerian, seven ounces; carbonate of ammonia, two scruples; compound 
tincture of bark, six drams; spirits of ether, two drams; one tablespoonful every 
twenty-four hours. 

19 . Blue pill, four grains; opium, half a grain; to be taken 

three times a day. 

20. For a Clyster—A pint and a half of gruel or fat broth, 
a tablespoonful of castor oil, one of common salt, and a lump of butter; mix, to be in¬ 
jected slowly. A third of this quantity is enough for an infant. 

21. Chalk mixture, seven ounces; aromatic and opiate con¬ 
fection, of each one dram: tincture of catechu, six drams; two tablespoonfuls 
every two hours. 


316 


MEDICINE AND HTGIENE. 


J* Carbonate of soda, powdered rhubarb, and Castile soap, 

each one dram; make thirty-six pills; three twice a day. ^ 

23. Lotion—Common salt, one ounce; distilled water, seven 

ounces, spirits of wine, one ounce; mix. 

24. Dried sulphate of magnesia, six drams; heavy carbon- 

a e o magnesia, two drams; wine of colchicum, two drams;"water eight 
ounces; take two tablespoonfuls every four hours. ’ ^ 

25. Compound powder of ipecacuanha, ten grains; powdered 

guaiacum, four grains; in a powder at bedtime. 

26. Brandish’s solution of potash; thirty drops twice a day in a 

wineglass of beer. J 


27. Bisulphate of quinia, half a dram; dilute sulphuric acid, 
ten drops; compound infusion of roses, eight ounces; two tablespoonfuls every eight 
hours, and as a tonic in the stage of weakness succeeding fever. 

28 Flowers of sulphur, two ounces; hog’s lard, four ounces; 

white hellebore powder, half an ounce; oil of lavender, sixty drops. 

29. Iodide of potass, two drams; distilled water, eight 
ounces. ° 


30. Flowers of sulphur, half a dram; carbonate of soda, a 
scruple; tartarized antimony, one-eighth of a grain; one powder night and morning 
in eruptions of the skin or face. 

31. Milk of bitter almonds, seven ounces; bichloride of mer¬ 
cury, four grains; spirits of rosemary, one ounce; bathe the eruption with this lotion 
three times a day. 

32. Sulphate of zinc, two scruples; sugar of lead, fifteen grains; 
distilled water, six ounces; the parts to be washed with the lotion three times a 
day. 

33. Carbonate of iron, six grains; powdered rhubarb, four 

grains; one powder night and morning. 

34. Aromatic powder and pepsin, each one dram; make 

twelve powders; one three or four times a,day. 

35. Sulphate of zinc, twelve grains; wine of opium, one 

dram; rosewater, six ounces. 

36. Sulphate of magnesia, six drams; sulphate of iron, ten 
grains; diluted sulphuric acid, forty drops; tincture of cardamoms (compound), halt 
an ounce; water, seven ounces; a fourth part night and morning. 

37. Decoction of oak bark, a pint; dried alum, half an ounce; 

for an injection; a syringe full to be used night and morning. 

38. Compound gamboge pill and a pill of asafoetida and aloes; 

of each half a dram; make twelve pills; two twice or three times a week. 

39. Griffith’s mixture—one tablespoonful three times a 

day. 

40. Ergot of rye, five grains; in a powder, to be taken every 

four hours. This should only be taken under medical advice and sanction. 

41. Powdered opium, half a grain; camphor, two grains, in a 

pill; to be taken every three or four hours whilst in pain. 

42. Syrup of balsam of tolu, two ounces; the muriate of mor¬ 
phia, two grains; muriatic acid, twenty drops; a teaspoonful twice a day. 

43. Salts of tartar, two scruples; twenty grains of powdered 
cochineal; % lb of honey; water, half a pint; boil and give a tablespoonful three 
times a day. 

44. Calomel, ten grains; Castile soap, extract of jalap, extract 

of colocynth, of each one scruple; oil of juniper, fivedrops; make into fifteen pills; 
one three times a day. 

317 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 


45 . Infusion of orange peel, eight ounces; carbonate of soda, 

one dram, and compound tincture of cardamoms, half an ounce; take a table¬ 
spoonful three times a day succeeding the pills. 

46 . Carbonate of iron, three ounces; syrup of ginger sufficient 
to make an electuary; a teaspoonful three times a day. 

47 . Take of Castile soap, compound extract of colocvnth, com¬ 
pound rhubarb pill and the extract of jalap, each one scruple; oil of caraway, ten 
drops; make into twenty pills, and take one after dinner every day whilst neces¬ 
sary. 

48 . Spirit of rosemary, five parts; spirit of wine, or spirit ot 
turpentine, one part. 

49 . Take of thick mucilage, one ounce; castor oil, twelve 

drams; make into an emulsion; add mint water, four ounces; spirit of nitre, 
three drams; laudanum, one dram; mixture of squills, one dram; and syrup, 
seven drams; mix; two tablespoonfuls every six hours. 

Rules for the Preservation of Health. 

Pure Atmospheric Air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and 
a very small proportion of carbonic acid gas. Air once breathed has lost the chief 
part of its oxygen and acquired a proportionate increase of carbonic acid gas. 
Therefore, health requires that we breathe the same air once only. 

The Solid Part of our Bodies is continually wasting and 

requires to be repaired by fresh substances Therefore, food which is to repair the 
loss should be taken with due regard to the exercise and waste of the body. 

The Fluid Part of our Bodies also wastes constantly; 

there is but one fluid in animals, which is water. Therefore, water only is neces¬ 
sary, and no artifice can produce a better drink. 

The Fluid of our Bodies is to the solid in proportion as nine 

to one. Therefore, a like proportion should prevail in the total amount of food 
taken. 

Light Exercises an Important Influence upon the 

growth and vigor of animals and plants. Therefore, our dwellings should freely 
admit the solar rays. 

Decomposing Animal and Vegetable Substances yield 

various noxious gases which enter the lungs and corrupt the blood. Therefore, 
all impurities should be kept away from our abodes, and every precaution be ob¬ 
served to secure a pure atmosphere. 

Warmth is Essential to all the bodily functions. Therefore, 

an equal bodily temperature should be maintained by exercise, by clothing or by 
fire. 

Exercise Warms, Invigorates and purifies the body; cloth¬ 
ing preserves the warmth the body generates; fire imparts warmth externally. 
Therefore, to obtain and preserve warmth, exercise and clothing are preferable to 
fire. 

Mental and Bodily Exercise are equally essential to the 

general health and happiness. Therefore, labor and study “should succeed each 
other. 

Man will live most Healthily upon simple solids and 

fluids, of which a sufficient but temperate quantity should be taken. Therefore, over- 
indulgence in strong drinks, tobacco, snuff, opium, and all mere indulgences, should 
be avoided. 

Sudden Alternations of Heat and Cold are dangerous 

(especially to the young and the aged). Therefore, clothing, in quality and quantity, 
should be adapted to the alternations of night and dav and of the seasons; and 
drinking cold water when the body is hot, and hot tea and soups when cold, are 
productive of many evils. 


m 


MEDICINE AND HYGIENE. 

The Skin is a Highly Organized Membrane full of 

minute pores, cells, blood vessels and nerves; it imbibes moisture or throws it off, ac¬ 
cording to the state of the atmosphere and the temperature of the body. It’also 
‘•breathes,” as do the lungs (though less actively). All the internal organs sympa- 
thize with the skin. Therefore, it should be repeatedly cleansed. 

Fire Consumes the Oxygen of the air and produces noxious 

gases. 1 herefore, the air is less pure in the presence of candles, gas or coal fire, 
than otherwise, and the deterioration should be repaired by increased ventilation. 

Late Hours and Anxious Pursuits exhaust the nervous 

system and produce disease and premature death. Therefore, the hours of labor 
and study should be short. 

Moderation in Eating and drinking, short hours of labor 

and study, regularity in exercise, recreation and rest, cleanliness, equanimity of 
temper and equality of temperature—these are the great essentials to that which 
surpasses all wealth, health of mind and body. 

HOMCEOPATHY. 

Principles of Homoeopathy. —As homoeopathy is now prac¬ 
ticed so widely, and, indeed, preferred to the older system in 
many families, this department could scarcely lay claim to be 
considered complete without a brief mention of the principal 
remedies used and recommended by homoeopathic practitioners, 
and the disorders for which these remedies are especially appli¬ 
cable. The principle of homoeopathy is set forth in the Latin 
words “similia similibus curantur ,” the meaning of which is 
“likes are cured by likes.” The homceopathist, in order to cure 
a disease, administers a medicine which would produce in a per¬ 
fectly healthy subject symptoms like but not identical with, or 
the same as, the symptoms to counteract which the medicine is 
given. He, therefore, first makes himself thoroughly acquainted 
with the symptoms that are exhibited by the sufferer; having 
ascertained these, in order to neutralize them and restore the 
state of the patient’s health to a state of equilibrium, so to speak, 
he administers preparations that would produce symptoms of a 
like character in persons in good health. It is not said, be it 
remembered, that the drug can produce in a healthy person the 
disease from which the patient is suffering; it is only advanced 
by homceopathists that the drug given has the power of pro¬ 
ducing in a person in health symptoms similar to those of the 
disease under which the patient is languishing, and that the cor¬ 
rect mode of treatment is to counteract the disease symptoms 
by the artificial production of similar symptoms by medical 
means, or, in other w'ords, to suit the medicine to the disorder, 
by the previously acquired knowledge of the effects of the drug 
by experiment on a healthy person. 

Homoeopathic Remedies are given in the form of globules 
or tinctures, the latter being generally preferred by homoeopathic 
practitioners. When contrasted with the doses of drugs given by 
allopathists, the small doses administered by homceopathists 

319 


HOMCEOPA THIC REMEDIES. 

must at first sight appear wholly inadequate to the purpose for 
which they are given; but homoeopathists, whose dilution and 
trituration diffuse the drug given throughout the vehicle in 
which it is administered, argue that by this extension of its sur¬ 
face the active power of the drug is greatly increased. Large 
doses of certain drugs administered for certain purposes will pass 
through the system without in any way affecting those organs 
which will be acted on most powerfully by the very same drugs 
when administered in much smaller doses. Thus a small dose 
of sweet spirit of nitre will act on the skin and promote perspi¬ 
ration, but a large dose will act as a diuretic only and exert no 
influence on the skin. 

Great stress is laid by homoeopathists on attention to diet, but 
not so much so in the present day as when the system was first in¬ 
troduced. The reader will find a list of articles of food that may 
and may not be taken in a succeeding page. Below are given 
briefly a few of the more common ailments “that flesh is heir 
to,” with the symptoms by which they are indicated and the 
medicines by which they may be alleviated and eventually 
cured. 

Asthma, an ailment which should be referred in all cases to 

the medical practitioner. Symptoms. Difficulty in breathing, with cough, either 
spasmodic and without expectoration, or accompanied with much expectoration. 
Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially with congestion or slight spitting of 
blood; Antimonium tartaricum for rattling and wheezing in the chest; Arsenicum -for 
chronic asthma; Ipecacuanha; Nux vomica. 

Bilious Attacks, if attended with diarrhoea and copious 

evacuations of a bright yellow color. Medicines. Bryonia, if arising from sedentary 
occupation, or from eating and drinking too freely; or Nux vomica and Mercurius in 
alternation, the former correcting constipation and the latter nausea, fullness at the 
pit of the stomach and a foul tongue. 

Bronchitis. Symptoms. Catarrh, accompanied with fever; ex¬ 
pectoration, dark, thick, and sometimes streaked with blood; urine dark, thick and 
scanty. Medicines. Aconitum napellus; especially in earlier stages; Bryonia for 
pain in coughing and difficulty in breathing; Antimonium tartaricum, loose cough, 
with much expectoration, and a feeling of, and tendency to, suffocation; ipecacu¬ 
anha, accumulation of phlegm in bronchial tubes and for children. 

Bruises and Wounds. —For all bruises, black eyes, etc., apply 
Arnica lotion; for slight wounds, after washing well with cold water, apply Arnica 
plaster; to stop bleeding, when ordinary means fail, and for larger wounds apply 
concentrated tincture of Calendula. . 

Cold in the Head or Catarrh. Symptoms. Feverish 

feeling generally, and especially about the head, eyes, and nose, running from, and 
obstruction of nose;sorenessand irritation of the throat and bronchial tubes. Medicines. 
Aconitum napellus for feverish symptoms; Belladonna for sore throat and headache 
with inclination to cough; Mercurius for running from nose and sneezing; Nux 
vomica for stoppage of nostrils; Chamomilla for children and women, for whom 
Pulsatilla is also useful in such cases. 

Chilblains. Symptoms. Irritation and itching of the skin, 

which assumes a bluish red color. Medicines. Arnica montana, taken internally 
or used as outward application, unless the chilblain be broken, when Arsenicum 
should be used. If the swelling and irritation do not yield to these remedies, use 
Belladona and Rhus toxicodendron. 

320 


HOMCEOPA THIC REMEDIES. 

Cholera, i. Bilious cholera. Symptoms. Nausea, proceed¬ 
ing to vomiting, griping of the bowels, watery and offensive evacuations, in which 
much bile is present, accompanied with weakness and depression. Medicines. 
Bryonia, with ipecacuanha at commencement of attack. 2. Malignant or Asiatic 
cholera. Symptoms as in bilious cholera, but in a more aggravated form, followed 
by what is called the “cold stage,’' marked by great severity of griping pain in stomach 
accompanied with frequent and copious vatery evacuations, and presently with cramps 
in all parts of the body; after which the extremities become chilled, the pulse 
scarcely discernible, the result of which is stupor and ultimately death. Medicines. 
Camphor in the form of tincture, in frequent doses, until the sufferer begins to feel 
warmth returning to the body, and perspiration ensues. In the latter stages. 
Cuprum and Veratrum. 

Tincture of Camphor is one of the most useful of the homoeo¬ 
pathic remedies in all cases of colic, diarrhoea, etc. In ordinary cases fifteen drops 
on sugar may be taken every quarter of an hour until the pain is allayed. In more 
aggravated cases, and in cases of cholera, a few drops may be taken at intervals of 
from two to five minutes. A dose of fifteen drops of camphor on sugar tends to 
counteract a chill if taken soon after premonitory symptoms show themselves, and 
act as a prophylactic against cold. 

Colic or Stomach Ache.—T his disorder is indicated by 

griping pains in the bowels, which sometimes extend upwards into and over the 
region of the chest Sometimes the pain is attended with vomiting and cold per¬ 
spiration. A warm bath is useful, and hot flannels, or ajar or bottle filled with hot 
water should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, especially 
when the abdomen is tender to the touch, and the patient is fevarisn; Belladonna for 
severe griping and spasmodic pains; Bryonia for bilious colic and diarrhoea; Chamo- 
milla for children. 

Constipation. —Women are more subject than men to this 

confined state of the bowels,which will, in many cases, yield to exercise, plain, nutri¬ 
tious diet, with vegetables and cooked fruit, and but little bread, and an enema of 
milk and water, or thin gruel if it is some time since there has been any action of the 
bowels. Medicines. Bryonia, especially for rheumatic patients, and disturbed state 
of the stomach; Nux vomica, for persons of sedentary habits, especially males; Pul¬ 
satilla, for women; Sulphur, for constipation that is habitual or of long continuance. 

Convulsions. —For cpnvulsions arising from whatever cause, 
a warm bath is desirable, and a milk and water enema, if the child’s bowels are con¬ 
fined. Medicines. Belladonna and Chamomilla, if the convulsions are caused 
by teething, with Aconitum napellus if the little patient be feverish; Aconitum 
napellus, Cina, and Belladonna, for convulsions caused by worms; Aconite and Cof- 
fcea, when they arise from fright; Ipecacuanha and Nux vomica, when they have 
been caused by repletion, or food that is difficult of digestion. 

Cough. —For this disorder, a light farinaceous diet is desirable, 
with plenty of out-door exercise and constant use of the sponging-bath. Medicines. 
Aconitum napellus, for a hard, dry, hacking cough; Antimonium, for cough with 
wheezing and difficulty of expectoration; Belladonna, for spasmodic cough, with 
tickling in the throat, or sore throat; Bryonia, for hard, dry cough, with expectora¬ 
tions streaked with blood; ipecacuanha, for children. 

Croup.—A s’this disorder frequently and quickly terminates 
fatally, recourse should be had to a duly qualified practitioner as soon as possible. 
The disease lies chiefly in the larynx and bronchial tubes, and is easy recognizable 
by the sharp, barking sound of the cough A warm bath and mustard poultice will 
often tend to give relief. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, in the earlier stages of 
the disorder, and Spongia and Hepar sulphuris, in the more advanced stages, the 
latter medicine being desirable when the cough is not so violent and the breathing 
easier. 

Diarrhoea. —The medicines to be used in this disorder are 
those which are mentioned under colic and bilious attacks. 

Dysentery is somewhat similar to diarrhoea, but the symp- 

321 


HO MCE OP A TH/C REMEDIES. 

toms are more aggravated in character, and the evacuations are chiefly mucus streaked 
with blood. As a local remedy hot flannels or a stonejar filled with hot water and 
wrapped in flannel should be applied to the abdomen. Medicines. Colocynthis 
and Mercurius in alternation. 

Dyspepsia or Indigestion arises from weakness of the 

digestive organs. Symptoms. Chief among these are habitual costiveness, heartburn 
and nausea, disinclination to eat, listlessness and weakness, accompanied with fatigue 
after walking etc., restlessness and disturbed sleep at night, bad taste in the 
mouth, with white tongue, especially in the morning, accompanied at times with 
fullness in the region of the stomach,and flatulence, which causes disturbance of the 
heart. The causes of indigestion are too numerous to be mentioned here, but they 
may be inferred when it is said that scrupulous attention must be paid to diet (see 
p. 324); that meals should be taken at regular and not too long intervals; that 
warm drinks, stimulants and tobacco should be avoided; that early and regular 
hours should be kept, with a cold or chilled sponge bath every morning; and that 
measures should be taken to obtain a fair amount of exercise, and to provide suita¬ 
ble occupation for both body and mind during the day. Medicines. Arnica montana 
for persons who are nervous and irritable, and suffer much from headaclie; Bryonia 
for persons who are bilious and subject to rheumatism, and those who are listless and 
disinclined to eat, and have an unpleasant bitter taste in the mouth; Hepar sulphuris 
for chronic indigestion and costiveness, attended with tendency to vomit in the 
morning; Mercurius in cases of flatulence, combined with costiveness; Nux vomica 
for indigestion that makes itself felt from 2 a. m. to 4 a. m., or thereabouts, with loss 
of appetite and nausea in the morning, and for persons with a tendency to piles, and 
those who are engaged in sedentary occupations; Pulsatilla for women generally, 
and Chamomilla for children. 

Fevers.—F or all fevers of a serious character, such as scarlet 
fever, typhus fever, typhoid fever, gastric fever, intermittent fever, or ague, etc., it 
is better to send at once for a medical man. In cases of ordinary fever indicated 
by alternate flushes and shivering, a hot dry skin, rapid pulse, and dry, foul tongue, 
the patient should have a warm bath, take but little nourishment, and drink cold 
water. Medicine. Aconitum napellus. 

Flatulency.—T his disorder, which arises from, and is a symp¬ 
tom of indigestion, frequently affects respiration, and causes disturbance and quick¬ 
ened action of the heart. The patient should pay attention to diet, as for dys¬ 
pepsia. Medicines. Cina and Nux vomica; Pulsatilla for women, and Chamo¬ 
milla for children. See Dyspepsia. 

Headache.—T his disorder proceeds from so many various 
causes, which require different treatment, that it is wiser to apply at once to a regu¬ 
lar homoeopathic practitioner, and especially in headache of frequent occurrence. 
Medicines. Nux vomica when headache is caused by indigestion; Pulsatilla being 
useful for women; Belladonna and Ignatia, for sick headache; Aconitum napellus 
and Arsenicum for nervous headache. 

Heartburn.— For this unpleasant sensation of heat, arising 

from the stomach, accompanied by a bitter taste, and sometimes by nausea, Nux 
vomica is a good medicine. Pulsatilla may be taken by women. 

Indigestion.— See Dyspepsia. 

M easles. —This complaint, which seldom attacks adults, is in¬ 
dicated in its early stage by the usual accompaniments and signs of a severe cold in 
the head —namely, sneezing, running from the nose and eyelids, which are swol¬ 
len. The sufferer also coughs, does not care to eat, and feels sick and restless. 
About four days after the first appearance of these premonitory symptoms, a red 
rash comes out over the face, neck and body, which dies away, and finally disap¬ 
pears in about five days. The patient should be kept warm, and remain in one room 
during the continuance of the disorder, and especially while the rash is out, lest, 
through exposure to cold in any way, the rash may be checked and driven inwards. 
Medicines. Aconitum napellus, and Pulsatilla, which are sufficient for all ordinary 
cases. _ If there be much fever, Belladonna; and if the rash be driven, in by a chill, 
Bryonia. 

322 



HO Mas OP A THIC REMEDIES. 

Mumps.— This disorder is sometimes consequent on measles. 
It is indicated by the swelling of the glands under the ear and lower jaw. It is far 
more painful than dangerous. Fomenting with warm water is useful. Medicines. 
Mercurius generally; Belladonna may be used when mumps follow’ an attack of 
measles. 

Nettlerash.—T his rash, so called because in appearance it re¬ 
sembles the swelling and redness caused by the sting of a nettle, is generally pro¬ 
duced by a disordered state of the stomach. Medicines. Aconitum napellus, Nux- 
vomica, or Pulsatilla, in ordinary cases; Arsenicum is useful if there is much fever; 
Belladonna if the rash is accompanied with headache. 

Piles.— The ordinary homoeopathic remedies for this painful 

complaint are Nux vomica and Sulphur. 

Sprains.—A pply to the part affected a lotion of one part of 
tincture of Arnica to two of water. For persons who cannot use Arnica, in conse¬ 
quence of the irritation produced by it, a lotion of tincture of Calendula may be 
used in the proportion of one part of the tincture to four of water 

Teething.—I nfants and very young children frequentlj' ex¬ 
perience mfich pain in the mouth during dentition, and especially when the "tooth is 
making its way through the gum. The child is often feverish, the mouth and gums 
hot and tender, and the face flushed. 'There is also much running from the mouth, 
and the bowels are disturbed, being in some cases confined, and in others relaxed, 
approaching to diarrhoea. Medicines. These are Aconitum napellus, in ordinary 
cases; Nux vomica, when the bowels are confined; Chamomilla, when the bowels 
are relaxed; M ercurius, if the relaxed state of the bowels has deepened into diarrhoea; 
Belladonna, if there be symptoms of disturbance of the brain. 

W hooping Cough.— This disease fs sometimes of long duration, 

for if it shows itselfin the autumn or winter months, the little patient will frequently 
retain cough until May or evenj une.w'hen it disappears with return of warmer weather. 
Change of air when practicable is desirable, especially when the cough has been of 
long continuance. In this cough there are three stages. In the first the symptoms 
are those of an ordinary cold in the head and cough. In the second the cough be¬ 
comes hard, dry and rapid, and the inhalation ot the air, after or during the par¬ 
oxysm of the coughing, produces a peculiar'sound from which the disease is named. 
In the final stage the cough occurs at longer intervals, and the paroxysms are less 
violent and ultimately disappear. In this stage the disease is subject to fluctuation, 
the cough again increasing in frequency of occurrence and intensity if the patient 
has been unduly exposed to cold or damp, or if the weather is very changeable. 
Children suffering from whooping-cough should have a light nourishing diet and 
only go out when the weather is mild and warm. Medicines. Aconitum napellus 
in the very commencement of the disorder, followed by Ipecacuanha and Nux 
vomica when the second stage is just approaching and during its continuance. 
These medicines may be continued if necessary during the third stage. 

Worms.—T he presence of worms is indicated by irritation of 

the membrane of the nose, causing the child to thrust its finger into the nostrils; by 
irritation of the lower part of the body; by thinness, excessive appetite and restless¬ 
ness in sleep. . Children suffering from worms should eat meat freely and not take 
so much bread, vegetables, and farinaceous food as children generally do. They 
should have as much exercise as possible in the open air, and be sponged with cold 
water every morning. The worms that mostly trouble children are the thread 
worms, which are present chiefly in the lower portion of the intestines, and the 
round worm. Medicine, &*c. Administer an injection of weak salt-and-water, and 
give Aconitum napellus, to be followed by Ignatia and Sulphur in the order in which 
they are here given. These are the usual remedies for threadworms. For round 
worms, whose presence in the stomach is indicated by great thinness, sickness and 
discomfort, and pain in the stomach, Aconitum napellus, Cina, Ignatia, and Sulphur 
are given. 

Extent of Doses in Homceopathy.— Homoeopathic medi¬ 

cines are given in the form ot globules, pilules, or tincture, the last-named being 

323 


ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. 

generally preferred. The average doses for adults are from half a drop to one drop ot 
the tincture given in a tablespoonful of water, trom two to four pilules, or from three to 
six globules. In using the tincture it is usual to measure out a few tablespoonfuls of 
water and to add to it a certain number of drops regulated by the quantity of water 
that is used. For children medicine is mixed at the same strength, but a less quan¬ 
tity is given. The proper quantity for a dose is always given in books and manuals 
for the homoeopathic treatment ot disease. Small cases of the principal medicines 
used in homoeopathy can be procured from most druggists, and with each case a little 
book showing the symptoms and treatment of all ordinary complaints is usually given. 

Diet in Homoeopathy. —The articles of food that are chiefly 

recommended when attention to diet Is necessary are stale bread, beef, mutton, 
poultry, fresh game, fish, chiefly cod and flat fish, avoiding mackerel, etc., egg9and 
oysters. Rice, sago, tapioca, and arrowroot are permitted, as are also potatoes, car¬ 
rots, turnips, broccoli, cauliflower, asparagus, French beans, and broad beans. 
Water, milk, cocoa and chocolate may be drunk. It is desirable to avoid all things 
that are not specified in the foregoing list. Ripe fruit may be eaten, but unripe 
fruit, unless cooked, should be scrupulously avoided. 

ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF INFANTS. 

The following formula, bv a physician of high standing, has 
been found beneficial in numerous cases where everything else 
failed to produce satisfactory results. In the author’s own fam¬ 
ily, it saved the life of an infant daughter who had been given 
up by an old practitioner, but who, it seems, was dying simply 
from lack of proper nourishment. She is now a rosy, robust 
child, in perfect health, and the pet of the household. The vir¬ 
tue of this formula consists in the fact that it most nearly corre¬ 
sponds to the natural nourishment from a healthy mother’s 
breast. In using this formula care should be taken to use only 
absolutely pure water, and all bottles and vessels should be scru¬ 
pulously clean, The cream and milk should be from one cow only: 

Take two tablespoonfuls of cream, two tablespoonfuls of lime 
water, one tablespoonful of good milk, three tablespoonfuls of a 
solution of sugar, three tablespoonfuls of milk containing eighteen 
drams to one pint of pure water. 

This quantity warmed is enough for once feeding a child offour months. For an 
older child add one teaspoonful of milk to the mixture for each month over four. 
For a younger child, diminish the quantity of milk in the same ratio. 

The child should be fed every two hours and a half during the day and 
evening and as little as possible at night. 

If the child be constipated, substitute barley water for lime water. In preparing 
the barley water a porcelain-lined kettle should be employed if possible. Use best 
pearl barley, and.boil to a very thin gruel, which strain. 

Each feeding must, of course, be made fresh, although the barley water and the 
sugar-of-milk solution may be made in quantities. 

Cholera Mixture— Take equal parts of tincture of cayenne, 
tincture of opium, tincture of rhubarb, essence of peppermint, 
and spirits of camphor. Mix well. Dose, 15 to 30 drops in a 
wine-glass of water, according to age and violence of the attack. 
Repeat every fifteen or twenty minutes until relief is obtained. 

Cure for Hiccough— Sit erect and inflate the lungs fully. 
Then, retaining the breath, bend forward slowly until the chest 

324 




C ON TA GIO US DISEA SES. 


meets the knees. After slowly arising again to the erect posi¬ 
tion, slowly exhale the breath. Repeat this process a second 
time, and the nerves will be found to have received an access of 
energy that will enable them to perform their natural functions. 

Choking —A piece of food lodged in the throat may some¬ 
times be pushed down with the finger, or removed with a hair¬ 
pin quickly straightened and hooked at the end, or by two or 
three vigorous blows on the back between the shoulders. 

Contagious Diseases. 


The following points will help to determine the nature of a 
suspicious illness: 


Disease. 

Rash or Eruption. 

Appearance. 

Durati’n 
in days. 

Remarks. 

Chicken-pox ... 

Small rose pimples 
changing to vesi¬ 
cles . . 

2d day of fever 
or after 24 h’rs’ 
illness... 

6-7 

Scabs from about 
fourth day of 
fever. 

Erysipelas. ... 

Diffuse redness and 
swelling . 

2d or 3d day of 

illness. . . . 


Measles. 

Small red dots like 

4th day of fever 
or after 72 

6-10 

Rash fades 0 n 


flea bites . 

7th day. 

Rash fades 0 n 
5th day. 

Scabs form 9th or 
10th day, fall off 
about 14th. 

Accompanied by 
diarrhoea. 

Scarlet Fever. 

Bright scarlet, dif¬ 
fused; . 

hours’ illness.. 
2d day cf fever 
or after 24 
hours’ illness.. 
3d day of fever 
or after 48 
hours’ illness.. 
nth to 14th day. 

8-10 

Small-pox. 

Small red pimples 
changing to vesi¬ 
cles, then pustules 
Rose-colored spots 
scattered. 

14-21 

Typhoid Fever. 

22-30 







It will often relieve a mother’s anxiety to know how long 
there is danger of infection after a child has been exposed to a 
contagious disease. The following table gives the information 
concerning the more important diseases: 


Disease. 

Symptoms 

appear. 

Period 
ranges from 

Patient is Infectious, 

Chicken-pox. 

On 14th day 
*' 2d' day 

“ 14th day 
“ 19th day 
** 14th day 
“ 4th day 
“ 12th day 
“ 21 st day 
“ 14th day 

10-18 days 
2- 5 days 
10-14 days 
16-24 days 
12-20 days 
1- 7 days 
1-14 days 
1-28 days 
7-14 days 

Until all scabs have fallen off. 

14 d’s after dis’pear’ce of membrane. 
Until scali’g and cough have ceas’d. 
14 days from commencement. 

10-14 days from commencement. 
Until all scaling has ceased. 

Until all scabs have fallen off. 

Until diarrhoea ceases. 

Six weeks from beginning to whoop. 

Diphtheria. 

Measles*. 

Mumps. 

Rotheln. 

Scarlet Fever. 

Small-pox. 

Typhoid Fever. 

Whooping Cough!- . 


*Xn measles the patient is infectious three days before the eruption appears, 
fin whooping-cough the patient is infectious during the primary cough, which 
may be three weeks before the whooping begins. 


325 








































* > 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 


WHAT TO DO. 

If an artery is cut , red blood spurts. Compress it above the 
wound. If a vein is cut, dark blood flows. Compress it below 
and above. 

If choked, go upon all fours and cough. 

For slight burns, dip the part in cold water; if the skin is 
destroyed, cover with varnish or linseed oil. 

For apoplexy, raise the head and body; for fainting, lay the 
person flat. 

Send for a physician when a serious accident of any kind 
occurs, but treat as directed until he arrives. 

Scalds and Burns—T he following facts cannot be too 

firmly impressed on the mind of the reader, that in either of these accidents the 
first, best, and often the only remedies required, are sheets of wadding, fine wool, 
or carded cotton, and in the default of these,violet powder, flour, magnesia, or chalk. 
The object for which these several articles are employed is the same in each in¬ 
stance; namely, to exclude the air from the injured part; for if the air can be effec¬ 
tually shut out from the raw surface, and care is taken not to expose the tender part 
till the new cuticle is formed, the cure may be safely left to nature. The moment a 
person is called to a case of scald or burn, he should cover the part with a sheet, or 
a portion of a sheet, of wadding, taking care not to break any blister that may have 
formed, or stay to remove any burnt clothes that may adhere to the surface, but as 
quickly as possible envelop every part of the injury from all access of the air, laying 
one or two more pieces of wadding on the first, so as effectually to guard the burn 
or scald from the irritation of the atmosphere; and if the article used is wool or cot¬ 
ton, the same precaution, of adding more material where the surface is thinly cov¬ 
ered, must be adopted; a light bandage finally securing all in their places. Any of 
the popular remedies recommended below may be employed when neither wool, 
cotton, nor wadding are to be procured, it being always remembered that that ar¬ 
ticle which will best exclude the air from a burn or scald is the best, quickest, and 
least painful mode of treatment. And in this respect nothing has surpassed cotton 
loose or attached to paper as in wadding. 

If the Skin is Much Injured in burns, spread some linen 

pretty thickly with chalk ointment, and lay over the part, and give the patient some 
brandy and water if much exhausted; then send for a medical man. If not much 
injured, and very painful, use the same ointment, or apply carded cotton dipped in 
lime water and linseed oil. If you please, you may lay cloths dipped in ether over 
the parts, or cold lotions. Treat scalds in same manner, or cover with scraped raw 
potato; but the chalk ointment is the best. In the absence of all these, cover the 
injured part with treacle, and dust over it plenty of flour. 

Body in Flames—L aj r the person down on the floor of the 

room, and throw the table cloth, rug, or other large cloth over him, and roll him 
on the floor. 

Dirt in the Eye—P lace your forefinger upon the cheek-bone, 

having the patient before you; then slightly bend the finger, this will draw down 
the lower lid of the eye, and you will probably bp able to remove the dirt; but jf 
this will not enable you to get at it, repeat this operation while you have a netting- 
needle or bodkin placed over the eyelid; this will turn it inside out, and enable you 
to remove the sand, or eyelash, etc., with the corner of a fine silk handkerchief. As 
soon as the substance is removed, bathe the eye with cold water, and exclude the 
light for a day. If the inflammation is severe, let the patient use a refrigerant lotion. 

Lime in the Eye—S yringe it well with warm vinegar and 

water in the proprotion of one ounce of vinegar to eight ounces of water; exclude 

light. 


32G 



ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 


Iron or Steel Spicul^e in the Eye—T hese occur while 

turning iron or steel in a lathe, and are best remedied by doubling back the upper 
or lower eyelid, according to the situation of the substance, and with the flat edge of 
a silver probe, taking up the metallic particle, using a lotion made by dissolving six 
grains of sugar of lead and the same of white vitriol, in six ounces of water, and bath¬ 
ing the eye three times a day till the inflammation subsides. Another plan is—Drop 
a solution of sulphate of copper (from one to three grains of the salt to one ounce of 
water) into the eye, or keep the eye open in a wineglassful of the solution. Bathe 
with cold lotion, and exclude light to keep down inflammation. 

Dislocated Thumb— This is frequently produced by a fall. 

Make a clove hitch, by passing two loops of cord over the thumb, placing a piece of 
rag under the cord to prevent it cutting the thumb; then pull in the same line as the 
thumb. Afterwards apply a cold lotion. 

Cuts and Wounds— Clean cut wounds, whether deep or 


superficial, and likely to heal by the first intention, should always be washed or 
cleaned, and at once evenly and smoothly closed by bringing both 
edges close together, and securing them in that position by 
adhesive plaster. Cut thin strips of sticking plaster, .and bring the 
parts together; or if large and deep, cut two broad pieces, so as to look like the teeth 
of a comb, and place one on each side of the wound, which must be cleaned pre¬ 
viously. These pieces must be arranged so that they shall interlace one another; 
then, by laying hold of the pieces on the right side with one hand, and those on the 
other side with the other hand, and pulling them from one another, the edges of 
the wound are brought together without any difficulty. 

Ordinary Cuts are dressed by thin strips, applied by pressing 
down the plaster on one side of the wound, and keeping it there and pulling in the 
opposite direction; then suddenly depressing the hand when the edges of the wound 
are brought together. 

Contusions are best healed by laying a piece of folded lint, 

well wetted with extract of lead, or boracic acid, on the part, and, if there is 
much pain, placing a hot bran poultice over the dressing, repeating both, if neces¬ 
sary, every two hours. When the injuries are very severe, lay a cloth over the part, 
and suspend a basin over it filled with cold lotion. Put a piece of cotton into the 
basin, so that it shall allow the lotion to drop on the cloth, and thus keep it always 


wet. 

Hemorrhage, when caused by an artery being divided or 
torn, may be known by the blood issuing out of the wound in leaps or jerks, and 
being of a bright scarlet color If a vein is injured, the blood is darker and flows 
continuously. To arrest the latter, apply pressure by means of a compress and 
bandage. To arrest arterial bleeding, get a piece of wood (part of a broom handle 
will do), and tie a piece of tape to one end of it; then tie a piece of tape loosely over 
the arm, and pass the other end of the wood under it; twist the stick round and 
round until the tape compresses the arm sufficiently to arrest the bleeding, and then 
confine the other end by tying the string around the arm. A compress made by 
enfolding a penny piece in several folds of lint or linen should, however, be first 
placed under the tape and over the artery. If the bleeding is very obstinate, and it 
occurs in the arm, place a cork underneath the string, on the inside of the fleshy 
part, where the artery may be felt beating by any one; if in the leg, place a cork in 
the direction of a line drawn from the inner part of the knee towards the outer part 
of the groin. It is an excellent thing to accustom yourself to find out the position of 
these arteries, or, indeed, any that are superficial, and to explain to every person in 
your house where they are, and how to stop bleeding. If a stick cannot be got take 
a handkerchief, make a cord bandage of it, and tie a knot in the middle; the knot 
acts as a compress, and should be placed over the artery, while the two ends are to 
be tied around the thumb. Observe always to place the ligature between the 
wound and the heart . Putting your finger into a breeding wound, and making 
pressure until a surgeon arrives, will generally stop violent bleeding. 

Bleeding from the Nose, from whatever cause, may gen¬ 
erally be stopped by putting a plug of lint into the nostrils; if this does not do, apply a 


ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

told lotion to the forehead; raise the head, and place over it both arms, so that it will 
rest on the hands; dip the lint plug, slightly moistened, into some powdered gum 
arabic, and plug the nostrils again; or dip the plug into equal parts of powdered 
gum arabic and alum,and plug the nose. Or the plug may be dipped in Friar’s balsam, 
or tincture of kino. Heat should be applied to the feet; and, in obstinate cases, the 
sudden shock of a cold key, or cold water poured down the spine, will often instantly 
stop the bleeding. If the bowels are confined take a purgative. Injections of alum 
solution from a small syringe into the nose will often stop hemorrhage. 

Violent Shocks will sometimes stun a person, and he will re • 

main unconscious. Untie strings, collars, etc.; loosen anything that is tight, and in¬ 
terferes with the breathing; raise the head; see if there is bleeding from any 
part; apply smelling-salts to the nose, and hot bottles to the feet. 

In Concussion, the surface of the body is cold and pale, and 

the pulse weak and small, the breathing slow and gentle , and the pupil of the eye 
generally contracted or small. You can get an answer by speaking loud, so as to 
arouse the patient. Give a little brandy and water, keep the place quiet, apply 
warmth, and do not raise the head too high. If you tickle the feet the patient 
feels it. , 

In Compression of the Brain from any cause, such as apo¬ 
plexy, or a piece of fractured bone pressing on it, there is loss of sensation. If you 
tickle the feeto the injured person he does not feel it. You cannot arouse him so as 
to get an answer. The pulse is slow and labored; the breathing deep, labored, 
and snorting; the pupil enlarged. Raise the head, loosen strings or tight things, 
and send for a surgeon. If one cannot be got at once, apply mustard poultices to 
the feet and thighs, leeches to the temples, and hot water to the feet. 

Choking— When a person has a fish bone in the throat, insert 

the forefinger, press upon the root of the tongue, so as to induce vomiting; it this 
does not do, let him swallow a large piece of potato or soft bread; and if these fail, 
give a mustard emetic. 

Fainting, Hysterics, etc.— Loosen the garments, bathe the 

temples with water or eau-de-Cologne; open the window, admit plenty of fresh air, 
dash cold water on the face, apply hot bricks to the feet, and avoid bustle and exces¬ 
sive sympathy. 

Drowning— Attend to the following essential rules: —i. Lose 

no tim*. 2. Handle the body gently. 3. Carry, the body face downwards, with 
the head gently raised, and never hold it up by the feet. 4. Send for medical as¬ 
sistance immediately, and in the memtime act as follows: 5. Strip the body; rub 
it dry, then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed in a warm room. 6. 
Cleanse away the froth and mucus from the nose and mouth. 7. Apply warm 
bricks, bottles, bags of sand, etc., to the armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles 
of the feet. 8. Rub the surface of the body with the hands inclosed in warm, dry 
worsted socks. 9. If possible, put the body into a warm bath. 10. To restore 
breathing, put the pipe of a common bellows into one nostril, carefully closing the 
other, and the mouth; at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently 
backwards, the upper part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; 
blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be raised a little; 
then set the mouth and noscrils free, and press gently on the chest; repeat this until 
signs of life appear. The body should be covered the moment it is placed on the 
table, except the face, and all the rubbing carried on under the sheet or blanket. 
When they can be obtained, a number of tiles or bricks should be made tolerably hot 
in the fire, laid in a row on the table, covered with a blanket, and the body placed 
in such a manner on them that their heat may enter the spine. When the patient 
revives, apply smelling-salts to the nose, give warm wine or brandy and water. 
Cautions. —1. Never rub the body with salt or spirits. 2. Never roll the body on 
casks. 3. Continue the remedies for twelve hours without ceasing. 

Hanging —Loosen the cord, or whatever it may be by which 

the person has been suspended. Open the temporal artery or jugular vein, or bleed 
from the arm; employ electricity, if at hand, and proceed as for drowning, takiag the 
additional precaution to apply eight or ten leeches to the temples. 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 


Apparent Death from Drunkenness— Raise the head; 

loosen the clothes, maintain warmth of surface, and give a mustard emetic as soon 
as the person can swallow. 

Apoplexy and Fits Generally— Raise the head; loosen all 

tight clothes, strings, etc.; apply cold lotions to the head, which should be shaved; 
apply leeches to the temples, bleed, and send for a surgeon. 

Suffocation from Noxious Gases, etc.— Remove to the 

fresh air; dash cold vinegar and water in the face, neck, and breast; keep up the 
warmth of the body; if necessary, apply mustard poultices to the soles of the feet and 
to the spine, and try artificial respirations as in drowning, with electricity. 

Lightning and Sunstroke— Treat the same as apoplexy. 


POISONS AND THEIR ANTIDOTES. 

Always send immediately for a medical man. Save all fluids 
vomited, and articles of food, cups, glasses, etc., used by the 
patient before taken ill. and lock them up. 

As a rule give emetics after poisons that cause sleepiness and 
raving;—chalk,, milk, eggs, butter, and warm water, or oil, after 
poisons that cause vomiting and pain in the stomach and bowels, 
with purging; and when there is no inflammation about the 
throat, tickle it with a feather to excite vomiting. 

Vomiting may be caused by giving warm water, 
with a teaspoonful of mustard to the tumblerful, well 
stirred up. Sulphate of zinc (white vitriol) may be 
Q. \f,y D used in place of the mustard, or powdered alum. 

Powder of ipecacuanha, a teaspoonful rubbed up with 
molasses, may be employed for children. Tartar 
emetic should tiever he git'en , as it is excessively 
depressing, and uncontrolable in its effects. The stomach pump 
can only be used by skillful hands, and even then with caution. 

Opium and other Narcetics —After vomiting has occurred, cold water should be 
dashed over the face and head. The patient must be kept awake, walked about be¬ 
tween two strong persons, made to grasp the handles of a galvanic battery, dosed 
with strong coffee, and vigorously slapped. Belladonna is an antidote for opium 
and for morphia, etc., its active principles; and, on the other hand, the latter 
counteract the effects of belladonna. But a knowledge of medicine is necessary for 
dealingwith these articles. 

Strychnia —After emetics have been freely and successfully given, the patient 
should be allowed to breathe the vapor of sulphuric ether, poured on a handker¬ 
chief and held to the face, in such quantities as to keep down the tendency to con¬ 
vulsions. Bromide of potassium, twenty grains at a dose, dissolved in syrup, may be 
given every hour. . , , . , ■ 

Alcoholic Poisoning should be combated by emetics, of which the sulphate ot zinc, 
given as above directed, is the best. After that, strong coffee; internally, and stim¬ 
ulation by heat externally, should be used. 

Acids are sometimes swallowed by mistake. Alkalies, lime water, magnesia, or 
common chalk mixed with water, may be freely given, and afterward mucilaginous 

drinks, such as thick gum water or flaxseed tea. ..... .. 

Alkalies are less frequently taken in injurious strength or quantity, but sometimes 
children swallow lye by mistake. Common vinegar may be given freely, and then 
castor or sweet oil in full doses-a tablespoonful at a time, repeated every halt hour 

01 Nitrate of silver when swallowed is neutralized by common table salt freely given 
in solution in water. 

329 



DOSES OF MEDICINE. 


The salts of mercury or arsenic (often kept as bedbug poison), which are power¬ 
ful irritants, are apt to be very quickly fatal. Milk or the whites of eggs may be 
freely given, and afterward a very thin paste of flour and water. In these cases an 
emetic is to be given after the poison is neutralized. 

Phosphorus paste, kept for roach poison or in parlor matches, is sometimes eaten 
by children, and has been willfully taken for the purpose of suicide. It is a power¬ 
ful irritant. The first thing to be done is to give freely of magnesia and water; then 
to give mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, gum water or sassafras pith and water; 
and lastly to administer finely-powdered bone-charcoal, either in pill or in mixture 
with water. 

In no case of poisoning should there be any avoidable delay in obtaining the advice 
of a physician, and, meanwhile, the friends or bystanders should endeavor to find 
out exactly what has been taken, so that the treatment adopted may be as prompt 
and effective as possible. 

DOSES OF MEDICINE. 


NAME OF DRUG. 


DOSE. 


Aloes . 

Anise Oil. 

Aqua Ammonia(dilute) 

Balsam Copaiba. 

Balsam of Fir. 

Bismuth. . 

Bromide of Potassium. 

Buchu Leaves. 

Calomel (as alterative) 

Castor Oil. 

Citrate of Iron. 

Citrate Iron & Quinine 

Cream of Tartar. 

Dover’s Powder. 

Elecampane. 

Epsom Salts. 

Gallic Acid. 

Iodide of Potassium... 

Kino. 

Mandrake. 

Mercury with Chalk.. 

Morphine.. 

Muriate of Ammonia.. 

Opium. 

Paregoric. 

Peppermint Essence.. 

Pepsin.. 

Quinine. 

Rochelle Salts. 

Rhubarb. 

Saltpetre. 

Samonin. 

Syrup of Squills. 

“ Iodide of Iron 
" Senna. 


3 to 15 grains. 

5 to 15 drops, 
xo to 30 drops. 

10 to 40 drops. 

3 to xo drops. 

5 to 40 grains. 

5 to 40 grains. 

20 to 40 grains. 
1-12 to 1 grain, 
x to 8 teasp’fuls. 

2 to 5 grains. 

3 to 8 grains. 

Yz to 3 teasp’fuls. 
5 to 10 grains. 

20 to 60 grains. 

Yz to 1 ounce. 

5 to 10 grains. 

2 to 10 grains. 

10 to 30 grains. 

5 to 20 grains. 

2 to 8 grains. 

% to % grain. 

5 to 20 grains. 

Y to 2 grains. 

1 teaspoonful. 

5 to 30 drops. 

1 to 5 grains. 

1 to 10 grains. 

^ to 1 ounce. 

5 to 30 grains. 

5 to 20 grains. 

2 to 5 grains. 

Yz to 1 teasp'ful. 
15 to 30 drops. 

1 to 6 teasp’fnls. 


NAME OF DRUG. 


DOSE. 


Syrup of Sarsaparilla.. 

“ Seneka. 

“ Rhubarb. 

Tannic Acid.. .. .... 
Tinct. of Aconite Root 

“ Aloes. 

“ Asafcetida ... 
** Belladona.... 
“ Bloodroot.... 
“ Columbo.... 
“ Camphor.... 

“ Cayenne. 

“ Castor. 

“ Catechu. 

“ Cinch. Comp 
“ Colchicum... 

“ Digitalis. 

“ Ginger. 

“ Gentian Com 

" Guaiac. 

“ Kino. 

“ Lobelia. 

“ Muriate Iron. 

“ Myrrh. 

“ Nux Vomica. 
“ Opium 

(Laudanum) 

“ Rhubarb. 

“ “ & Senna 


“ Tolu. 

“ Valerian .... 

T urpentine. 

Wine Ipecac (Diaph.). 
“ “ (Emetic). 

“ Colchicum Root 


1 to 4 teasp’fuls. 
x to 2 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 2 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 5 grains. 

1 to 5 drops. 

1 to 8 teasp’fuls. 
Y to i teasp’ful. 
10 to 30 drops. 

Y\ to Yz teasp’ful. 
1 to 2 teasp’fuls. 

5 to 60 drops. 

10 to 60 drops. 

Yz to 1 teasp’ful. 
Yz to 2 teasp’fuls 
Yz to 4 teasp’fuls. 
15 to 60 drops. 

5 to 20 drops. 

% to 1 teasp’ful 
Yz to2teasp’fuls. 
Yz to i teasp’ful. 
Yz to 2 teasp’fuls. 
Y\ to 1 teasp’ful. 
10 to 30 drops 
Yz to 1 teasp’ful. 
5 to 10 drops. 

10 to 25 drops. 

1 to 4 teasp’fuls. 

1 to 4 teasp’fuls. 
} 4 to 1 teasp’ful. 
Yz to 2 teasp’fuls. 
10 to 40 drops. 

10 to 30 drops. 

2 to 8 teasp’fuls. 
10 to 30 drops. 


Table of Proportionate Doses. 

Age, years . 80 65 50 25-40 20 16 12 

■P oses .. t t i 1 1 i f 

Age , months .12 

Doses. 1 


8 5 


6 2 
1 1 
S T? 


2 


1 


i 1 ? 


330 


























































Largest Safe Doses of Poisonous Drug’s* 

Every person should know the largest doses, which is safe to 
take, of p.ctive medicines. The following table shows the larg¬ 
est doses admissible, in grammes, and also the equivalent in 
grains for solids, and in minims for liquids. The doses are ex¬ 
pressed in fractions, thus: 1-13, 1 - 64 , meaning one-thirteenth, 
one-sixty-fourth. In non professional hands it is the safest plan 
to strictly observe the rule of never giving the maximum dose of 
any medicine: 


Medicines. Grammes. Grains. 

Medicines. Grammes. Grains. 

Arsenious Acid. 

.. .005 

1-13 

Ext. Opium. 

.1 

PA 

Acid, Carbolic. 


% 

“ Stramon, Seed. 

.05 

3 A 

“ Hydrocyanic. 

.. .06 

1 

Fowler’s Solution. 

.4 

6 min. 

Aconita. 

.. .0041 

-16 

Lead, Sugar of. 

.06 

9-10 

Aconite Root. 

.. .15 

2 M 

Mercury, Corrosive Chlor. 

.03 

9-20 

Arsenic, Iodide. 

.. .025 

% 

“ Red Iodide. 

.03 

9-20 

Atropia. 

.. .001 

1-64 

Morphia and its Salts. 

,03 

9-20 

Atropia Sulph. 


1-64 

Nitrate Silver. 

.03 

9-20 

Barium, Chlor. 

.. .12 

1 % 

Oil, Croton. 

.06 

9-10 

Belladonna, Herb. 

.. .2 

3 

Opium. 

15 

2 % 

“ Root. 

.. .1 

PA 

Phosphorus... 

.015 

2-9 

Codia. . 

.. .05 

% 

Potassa, Arsenite. 

005 

1-13 

Conia. 

.. .001 

1-64 

“ Cyanide. 

.03 

9-20 

Digitalis. 

.. .3 

pa 

Santonine. 

1 

PA 

Ext. Aconite Leaves. 

.. .1 

pa 

Soda, Arsenite. 

.005 

1-13 

“ “ Root. 

.. .025 

% 

Strychnia and Salts. 

01 

1-6 

•• Belladonna. 

.. .1 

134 

Tartar Emetic. 

2 

3 

" Cannabis Indica.... 

.. .1 

pa 

Veratria. 

005 

1-13 

•* Conium. 

.. .18 

2 % 

Veratrum Viride. 

3 

PA 

* 4 Digitalis. 

.. 2 

3 

Zinc, Chloride. 

015 

2-9 

“ Nux Vomica, Ale... 

.. .05 

% 

“ Valeriante. 

06 

9-10 


Relative Value of Food (Beef par) 

Oysters, 22; milk, 24; lobsters, 50: cream, 56; codfish, 68; eggs, 72; turbot, 84; 
mutton, 87; venison, 89; veal, 92; fowl, 94; herring, 100; beef, 100; duck, 104; sal¬ 
mon, 108; pork, 116; butter, 124; cheese, 155. 


Percentage of Carbon in Food. 

Cabbage, 3; beer, 4; carrots, 5; milk, 7; parsnips, 8; fish, 9; potatoes, 12; eggs, 16; 
beef, 27; bread, 27; cheese, 36; peas, 36; rice, 38; corn, 38; biscuit, 42. oatmeal, 42; 
sugar, 42; flour, 46; bacon, 54; cocoa, 69; butter, 79. 


Foot-tons of Energy Per Ounce of Food. 

Cabbage, 16; carrots, 20; milk, 24; ale, 30; potatoes, 38; porter, 42; beef, 55; egg, 
57; ham, 65; bread, 83; egg (yolk), 127; sugar, 130; rice, 145; flour, 148; arrowroot, 
151; oatmeal, 152; cheese, 168; butter, 281. 

Eoss of Meat in Cooking. 


100 tbs. raw beef 
100 ** “ 

400 “ raw mutton 


= 67 lbs. roast 
= 74 “ boiled 
= 75 “ toast 


100 lbs. raw fowl 
100 “ “ 

100 “ raw fish 


= 80 roast 
= 87 boiled 
= 94 boiled 


The Percentage of Starch. 

In common grains is as follows, according to Prof. Yeomans; Rice flour, 84 to 85; 
Indian meal, 77 to 80; oatmeal, 70 to 80; wheat flour, 39 to 77; barley flour, 67 to 70; 
rye flour, 50 to 61; buckwheat, 52; peas and beans, 42 to 43; potatoes (75 per cent. 

water), 13 to 15. „ _ 

The Degrees of Sugar. 

In various fruits are: Peach, 1.6; raspberry, 4.0; strawberry, 5 - 7 > currant, 6.1, 
gooseberry, 7.2; apple, 7.9; mulberry, 9.2; pear, 9.4; cherry, 10.8, grape, 14*9* 

331 















































*■ Digestion of Various Foods. 

Easy of Digestion—Arrowroot, asparagus, cauliflower, baked 

apples, oranges, grapes, strawberries, peaches. 

Moderately Digestible—Apples, raspberries, bread, puddings, 

rhubarb, chocolate, coffee, porter. 

Hard to Digest—Nuts, pears, plums, cherries, cucumbers, 


onions, carrots, parsnips, 

C TIME REQUIRED 

Hrs. Min. 


Apples, sweet. 1 30 

“ sour.. ,.2 00 

Beans, pod, boiled. 2 30 

Beef, fresh, rare, roasted. 3 00 

“ “ dried. 3 30 

“ “ fried...... 4 00 

Beets, boiled.. 3 45 

Bread, wheat, fresh.,. 3 30 

“ corn.. 3 15 

Butter (melted)... 3 80 

Cabbage, with vinegar, raw. 2 00 

“ - boiled. 4 30 

Cheese (old, strong).. 3 30 

Codfish. 2 00 

Custard, baked... 2 45 

Ducks, domestic, roasted. 4 00 

“ wild, . .V . 4 30 

Eggs, fresh, hard, boiled. 3 30 

“ “ soft •* 3 00 

‘‘ “ fried . 3 30 

Goose, roast. 2 00 

Lamb, fresh, boiled. 2 30 

Liver, beef, boiled. 2 00 

Milk, boiled. 2 00 

“ raw. 2 15 

Parsnips, boiled.... 2 30 


FOR DIGESTION. 


Hrs. Min. 

Mutton, roast.. 3 15 

“ broiled.3 00 

“ boiled.3 00 

Oysters, raw.. 2 55 

“ roast... 3 15 

“ stewed...,.. 3 . 30 

Pork, fat and lean, roast. 5 15 

“ “ “ boiled. 3 , 15 

“ “ “ raw. 3 00 

Potatoes, boiled... 3 30 

“ baked. 2 30 

Rice boiled. 1 00 

Sago “ .1 45 

Salmon, salted, boiled, .. 4 00 

Soup, beef, vegetable. 4 00 

“ chicken boiled. ......3 00 

“ oyster “ .•. .3 30 

Tapioca, boiled... 2 00 

Tripe, soused, boiled. 1 00 

Trout, fresh, boiled or fried. 1 30 

Turkey, domestic, roast. 2 00 

“ wild, roast.2 18 

Turnips, boiled. 3 30 

Veal, fresh, broiled.... I. 4 00 

“ fresh, fried. 4 30 

Venison steak, broiled........ V. .1 35 


Fat, Water and Muscle Properties of Food. 


IOO PARTS. 

Water. Muscle 

. Fat. 

Cucumbers. 

. 97.0 

1.5 

1.0 

Turnips. 

.... 94.4 

1.1 

4.0 

Cabbage. 

. 90.0 

4.0 

5.0 

Milk, cows’. 

.86.0 

5.0 

8.0 

Apples. 

. 84.0 

5.0 

10.0 

Eggs, yolk of.... 

. 79.0 . 

15.0 

27.0 

Potatoes........ 

. 75.2 

1.4 

22.5 

Veal. 

. 68.5 

10.1 

1.65 

Eggs, white of... 

. 53.0 

17.0 

.0 

Lamb. 

.... 50.5 

11.0 

35.0 

Beef.... 


15.0 

30.0 

Chicken. 

. 46.0 

18.0 

32.0 




IOO PARTS. 

Water. Muscle. 

Fat. 

Mutton... 

A... 44.0 

12.5 

' 40.0 

Pork.. 


10.00 

50.0 

Beans.. , 

. 14.8 

24.0 

57.7 

Buckwheat. 

. 14.2 

8.6 

75.4 

Barley.. 

. 14.0 

15-0 

68.8 

Corn . 

. 14.0 

120 

73.0 

Peas. 


23.4 

60.0 

Wheat. 


14.6 

69.4 

Oats.. 


17.0 

66.4 

Rice. 

. 13 5 

6 5 

79 5 

Cheese. 


65.0 

19.0 

Butter. 



100.0 


Percentage of Nutrition in Various Articles of Food. 

Raw cucumbers, 2; raw mellons, 3; boiled turnips, 4%; milk, 7; cabbage, 7%; 
currants, 10; whipped eggs, 13; beets. 14; apples, 16; peaches, 20; boiled codfish’ 
21; broiled venison, 22;p>tatoes, 22}^; fried veal, 24; roast pork, 24; roast poul¬ 
try, 26; raw beef, 26; raw grapes, 37 ; raw plums, 29; broiled mutton, 30; oatmeal 
porridge, 75; rye bread, 79; boiled beans, 87; boiled rice, 88; barley bread, 88; 
wheat bread, 90; baked corn bread, 91; boiled barley, 92; butter, g 3 ; boiled peas’. 
93; raw oils, 94." 


332 















































































USEFUL RECIPES, TRADE SECRETS, ETC. 


Toothache Cure. Compound tinct. benzoin is said to be one 

of the most certain and speedy cures for toothache; pour a few drops on cotton, and 
press at once into the diseased cavity, when the pain will almost instantly cease. 

Toothache Tincture. Mix tannin, i scruple; mastic, 3 grains; 

ether, 2 drams. Apply on cotton wool, to the tooth, previously dried. 

Charcoal Tooth Paste. Chlorate of potash, y 2 dram; mint 

water, 1 ounce. Dissolve and add powdered charcoal, 2 ounces; honey, 1 ounce. 

Excellent Mouth Wash. Powdered white Castile soap, 2 

drams; alcohol. 3 ounces; honey, 1 ounce; essence or extract jasmine, a drams. 
Dissolve the soap in alcohol and add honey and extract. 

Removing Tartar from the Teeth. This preparation is used by 
dentists. Pure muriatic acid, one ounce; water, one ounce; honey, two ounces; mix 
thoroughly. Take a toothbrush, and wet it freely with this preparation, and briskly 
rub the black teeth, and in a moment’s time they will be perfectly white; then im¬ 
mediately wash out the mouth well with water, that the acid may not act on the 
enamel of the teeth. This should be done only occasionally. 

Bad Breath. Bad breath from catarrh, foul stomach, or bad 
teeth, may be temporarily relieved by diluting a little bromo chloralum with eight 
or ten parts of water, and using it as a gargle, and swallowing a few drops before 
going out. A pint of bromo chloralum costs fifty cents, but a small vial will last a 
long time. 

Good Tooth Powder. Procure, at a druggist’s, half an ounce of 

powdered orris root, half an ounce of prepared chalk finely pulverized, and two or 
three small lumps of Dutch pink. Let them all be mixed in a mortar, and pounded 
together. The Dutch pink is to impart a pale reddish color. Keep it in a close box. 

Another Tooth Powder. Mix together, in a mortar, half an 
ounce of red Peruvian bark, finely powdered; a quarter of an ounce of powdered 
myrrh; and a quarter of an ounce of prepared chalk. 

A Safe Depilatory. Take a strong solution of sulphuret of 

barium, and add enough finely powdered starch to make a paste. Apply to the 
roots of the hair and allow it to remain on a few minutes, then scrape off with the 
back edge of a knife blade, and rub with sweet oil. 

Quick Depilatory for Removing Hair. Best slacked lime, 6 

ounces; orpiment, fine powder, 1 ounce. Mix with a covered sieve and preserve in 
a dry place in closely stoppered bottles. In using mix the powder with enough 
water to form a paste, and apply to the hair to be removed. In about five minutes, 
or as soon as its caustic action is felt on the skin, remove, as in shaving, with an 
ivory or bone paper knife, wash with cold water freely, and apply cold cream. 

Tricopherous for the Hair. Castor oil, alcohol, each 1 pint; 
tinct. cantharides, one ounce; oil bergamot, % ounce; alkanet coloring, to color as 
wished. Mix and let it stand forty-eight hours, with occasional shaking, and then 
filter. 

Liquid Shampoo. Take bay rum, 2% pints; water, % pint; 
glycerine, 1 ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; carbonate of ammonia, 2 drams 
borax, jounce; or take of New England rum, pints; bay rum, 1 pint; water 
pint; glycerine, 1 ounce; tinct. cantharides, 2 drams; animon. carbonate, 2 
drams; borax. ounce: the salts to be dissolved in water and the other ingredi¬ 
ents to be added gradually. 

Cleaning Hair Brushes. Put a teaspoonful or dessertspoonful 
of aqua ammonia into a basin half full of water, comb the loose hairs out of the 
brush, then agitate the water briskly with the brush, and rinse it well with clear 
water 

Hair Invigorator. Bay rum, two pints; alcohol, one pint; cas¬ 
tor oil, one ounce; carb. ammonia, half an ounce; tincture of cantharides, one 
ounce. Mix them well. This compound will promote the growth of the hair and 
prevent it from falling out. 


333 



USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

For Dandruff. Take glycerine, four ounces; tincture of can- 

tha; ides, five ounces; bay rum, four ounces; water, two ounces. Mix, and apply once 
a clay, and rub well down the scalp. 

Mustache Grower. Simple cerate, i ounce; oil bergamot, io 

minims; saturated tinct. of canthandes, 15 minims. Rub them together thoroughly, 
or melt the cerate and stir in the tincture while hot, and the oil as soon as it is 
nearly cold, then run into molds or rolls. To be applied as a pomade, rubbing in 
at the roots of the hair. Care must be used not to inflame the skin by too frequent 

application. 

Razor-strop Paste. Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and 

apply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 

Shaving Compound. Half a pound of plain white soap, dis¬ 
solved in a small quantity of alcohol, as little as can be used; add a tablespoonful 
of pulverized borax. Shave the soap and put it in a small tin basin or cup; place it 
on the fire in a dish of boiling water; when melted, add the alcohol, and remove 
from the fire; stir in oil of bergamot sufficient to perfume it. 

Cure for Prickly Heat. Mix a large portion of wheat bran 
with either cold or lukewarm water, and use it as a bath twice or thrice a day. 
Children who are covered with prickly heat in warm weather will be thus effectu¬ 
ally relieved from that tormenting eruption. As soon as it begins to appear on the 
neck, face, or arms, commence using the bran water on these parts repeatedly 
through the day, and it may probably spread no farther. If it does, the bran water 
bath will certainly cure it, if persisted in. 

To Remove Corns from Between the Toes. These corns are gen¬ 
erally more painful than any others, and are frequently situated as to be almost in¬ 
accessible to the usual remedies. Wetting them several times a day with hartshorn 
will in most cases cure them. Try it. 

Superior Cologne Water. Oil of lavender, two drams; oil of 

rosemary, one dram and a half; orange, lemon and bergamot, one dram each 
of the oil; also two drams of the essence of musk, attar of rose ten drops, and a 
pint of proof spirit. Shake all together thoroughly three times a day for a week. 

Inexhaustible Smelling Salts. Sal tartar, three drams; mur¬ 
iate ammonia, granulated, 6 drams; oil neroli, 5 minims; oil lavender flowers, 5 min¬ 
ims; oil rose, 3 minims; spirits ammonia, 15 minims. Put into the pungent a small 
piece of sponge filling about one-fourth the space, and pour on it a due proportion 
of the oils, then put in the mixed salts until the bottle is three-fourths full, and pour 
on the spirits of ammonia in proper proportion and close the bottle. 

Volatile Salts for Pungents. Liquor ammon., fort, 1 pint, oil 

lavender flowers, 1 dram, oil rosemary, fine, 1 dram, oil bergamot, y 2 dram, 
oil peppermint, 10 minims. Mix thoroughly and fill pungents or keep in well 
stoppered bottle. Another formula is, sesqui-carbonate of ammonia, small pieces, 10 
ounces, concentrated liq. ammonia, 5 ounces. Put the sesqui-carb. in a wide mouth 
jar with air-tight stopper, perfume the liquor ammonia to suit and pour over the car¬ 
bonate, close tightly the lid and place in a cool place, stir with a stiff spatula every 
other day for a week, and then keep it closed for two weeks, or until it becomes 
hard, when it is ready for use. 

Paste for Papering Boxes. Boil water and stir in batter of 

wheat or rye flour. Let it boil one minute, take off and strain through a colander. 
Add, while boiling, a little glue or powdered alum. Do plenty of stirring while the 
paste is cooking, and make of consistency that will spread nicely. 

Aromatic Spirit of Vinegar. Acetic acid, No. 8, pure, 8 

ounces; camphor, y 2 ounce. Dissolve and add oil lemon, oil lavender flowers, each 
two drams; oil cassia, oil cloves, y 2 dram each. Thoroughly mix and keep in 
well stoppered bottle. 

Rose-Water. Preferable to the distilled for a perfume, or for 

culinary purposes; Attar of rose, twelve drops; rub it up with half an ounce of 
white sugar and two drams carbonate magnesia, then add gradually one quart of 
water and two ounces of proof spirit, and filter through paper. 

334 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 


Bay Rum. French proof spirit, one gallon; extract bay, six 
ounces. Mix and color with caramel; needs no filtering. 

Fine Lavender Water. Mix together, in a clean bottle, a pint 
of inodorous spirit of wine, an ounce of oil of lavender, a teaspoonful of oil of berga¬ 
mot, and a tablespoonful of oil of ambergris. 

The Virtues of Turpentine. After a housekeeper fully realizes 

the worth of turpentine in the household, she is n#ver willing to be without a sup¬ 
ply of it. It gives quick relief to burns, it is an excellent application for corns, it is 
good for rheumatism and sore throats, and it is the quickest remedy for convulsions 
or fits. Then it is a sure preventive against moths by just dropping a trifle in the 
bottom of drawers, chests and cupboards, it will render the garments secure from 
injury during the summer. It will keep ants and bugs from closets and store-rooms 
by putting a few drops in the corners and upon the shelves it is sure destruction to 
bedbugs, and will effectually drive them away from their haunts if thoroughly ap¬ 
plied to all the joints of the bedstead in the spring cleaning time, and injures neither 
furniture nor clothing. A spoonful of it added to a pail of warm water is excellent 
for cleaning paint. A little in suds washing days lightens laundry labor. 


A Perpetual Paste is a paste that may be made by dissolving 

an ounce of alum in a quart of warm water. When cold, add as much flour as w ill 
make it the consistency of cream, then stir into it half a teaspoonful of powdered re¬ 
sin, and two or three cloves. Boil it to a consistency of mush, stirring all the time. It 
will keep for twelve months, and when dry may be softened with warm water. 

Paste for Scrap Books. Take half a teaspoonful of starch, 

same of flour, pour on a little boiling water, let it stand a minute, add more water, 
stir and cook it until it is thick enough to starch a shirt bosom. It spreads smooth, 
sticks well and will not mold or discolor paper. Starch alone will make a very good 
paste. 

A Strong Paste. A paste that will neither decay nor become 

moldy. Mix good clean flour with cold water into a thick paste well blended to¬ 
gether, then add boiling water, stirring well up until it is of a consistency that can 
be easily and smoothly spread with a brush; add to this a spoonful or two of brown 
sugar, a little corrosive sublimate and about half a dozen drops of oil of lavender, 
and you will have a paste that will hold with wonderful tenacity. 

A Brilliant Paste. A brilliant and adhesive paste, adapted to 

fancy articles, may be made by dissolving caseine precipitated from milk by acetic 
acid and washed with pure water in a saturated solution of borax. 

A Sugar Paste. In order to prevent the gum from cracking, to 

ten parts by weight of gum arabicand three parts of sugar, add water until the de¬ 
sired consistency is obtained. If a very strong paste is required, add a quantity ol 
flour equal in weight to the gum, without boiling the mixture. I he paste improves 
in strength when it begins to ferment. 

Tin Box Cement. To fix labels to tin boxes either of the follow¬ 
ing will answer; i. Soften good glue in water, then boil it in strong vinegar, and 
thicken the liquid while boiling with fine wheat flour, so that a paste results 2. 
Starch paste, with which a little Venice turpentine has been incorporated while 
warm. . , c 

Paper and Leather Paste. Cover four parts, by weight, of 
glue with fifteen parts of cold water, and allow it to soak for several nours, then 
warm moderately till the solution is perfectly clear, and dilute with sixty parts of 
boiling water, intimately stirred in. Next prepare a solution of thirty parts of starch 
in two hundred parts of cold water, so as to form a thin homogeneous liquid, free 
from lumps, and pour the boiling glue solution into it with thorough stirring, and a 

the same time keep the mass boiling. . . 

Commercial Mucilage. The best quality of mucilage in the 

market is made by dissolving clear glue in equal volumes of water and strong vine¬ 
gar and adding one-fourth of an equal volume of alcohol, and a small quantity of a 
solution of alum in water. Some of the cheaper preparations offered for sale are 
merely boiled starch or flour, mixed with nitric acid to prevent their gelatinizing. 

335 



USEFUL RECIPES , ETC , 

Acid-Proof Paste. A paste formed by mixing powdered glass 
with a concentrated solution of silicate of soda makes an excellent aoid-proof 
cement. 

Paste to Fasten Cloth to Wood. Take a plump pound of wheat 
flour, one tablespoonful of powdered resin, one tablespoonful of finely powdered 
alum, and rub the mixture in a suitable vessel, with water, to a unitorm, smooth 
paste; transfer this to a small kettle over a fire, and stir until the paste is perfectly 
homogeneous without lumps. As soon as the mass has become so stiff that the 
stirrer remains upright in it, transfer it to another vessel and cover it up so that no 
skin may form on its surface. 

This paste is applied in a very thin layer to the surface of the table; the cloth, or 
leather, is then laid and pressed upon it, and smoothed with a roller. The ends are 
cut off after drying. If leather is to be fastened on, this must first be moistened 
with water The paste is then applied, and the leather rubbed smooth with a 
cloth. 

Paste for Printing Office. Take two gallons of cold water 

and one quart wheat flour, rub out all the lumps, then add one-fourth pound of 
finely pulverized alum and boil the mixture for ten minutes, or until a thick con¬ 
sistency is reached. Now add one quart of hot water and boil again, until the paste 
becomes a pale brown color, and thick. The paste should be well stirred during 
both processes of cooking. Paste thus made will keep sweet for two weeks and 
prove very adhesive. 

To Take Smoke Stains from Walls. An easy and sure way to 

remove smoke stains from common plain ceilings is to mix wood ashes with the 
whitewash just before applying. A pint of ashes to a small pail of whitewash is suf¬ 
ficient, but a little more or less will do no harm. 

To Remove Stains from Broadcloth. Take an ounce of pipe 

clay, which has been ground fine, mix it with twelve drops of alcohol and the same 
quantity of Spirits of turpentine. Whenever you wish to remove any stains from 
cloth, moisten a little of this mixture with alcohol and rub it on the spots. Let it re¬ 
main till dry, then rub it off with a woolen cloth, and the spots will disappear. 

To Remove Red Stains of Fruit from Linen. Moisten the 

cloth and hold it over a piece of burning sulphur, then wash thoroughly, or else the 
spots may reappear. 

To Remove Oil Stains Take three ounces of spirits of turpen¬ 
tine, and one ounce of essence of lemon, mix well, and apply it as you would any 
other scouring drops. It will take out all the grease. 

Iron Stains may be removed by the salt of lemons. Many 

stains may be removed by dipping the linen in sour buttermilk, and then drying "it 
in a hot sun; wash it in cold water, repeat this three or four times. 

To Remove Oil Stains from Wood. Mix together fuller’s earth 

and soap lees, and rub it into the boards. Let it dry and then scour it off with some 
strong soft soap and sand, or use lees to scour it with. It should be put on hot, 
which may easily be done by heating the lees. 

To Remove Tea Stains. Mix thoroughly soft soap and salt—say 

a tablespoonful of salt to a teacupful of soap, rub on the spots, and spread the cloth 
on the grass where the sun will shine on it. Let it lie two or three days, then wash. 
If the spots are wet occasionally while lying on the grass, it will hasten the bleach¬ 
ing 

To Remove Stains from Muslin. If you have stained your 

muslin or gingham dress, or your white pants with berries, before wetting with any¬ 
thing ejse, pour boiling water through the stains and they will disappear. Before 
fruit juice dries it can often be removed by cold water, using a sponge and towel if 
necessary. 

To Remove Acid Stains. Stains caused by acids may be re¬ 
moved. by tying some pearlash up in the stained part; scrape some soap in cold, soft 
water, and boil the linen until the stain is gone. 

33G 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Disinfect Sinks and Drains. Copperas dissolved in water, 

one-fourth of a pound to a gallon, and poured into a sink and wat; r drain occasion¬ 
ally, will keep such places sweet and wholesome. A little chloride of lime, say half 
a pound to a gallon of water, will have the same effect, and either of these costs but 
a trifle. 

A preparation may be made at home which will answer about as well as the chlo¬ 
ride of lime. Dissolve a bushel of salt in a barrel of water, and with the salt water 
slack a barrel of lime, which should be made wet enough to form a thin paste or 
wash. 

To Disinfect a Cellar. A damp, mustv cellar may be sweetened 

by sprinkling upon the floor pulverized copperas, cfiloride of lime, or even common 
lime. The most effective means I have ever used to disinfect decaying vegetable 
matter is chloride of lime in solution. One pound may be dissolved in two gallons of 
water. Plaster of Paris has also been found an excellent absorbent of noxious odors. 
If used one part with three parts of charcoal, it will be found still better. 

How to Thaw Out a Water Pipe. Water pipes usually freeze up 

when exposed, for inside the walls, where they cannot be reached, they are or 
should be packed to prevent freezing. To thaw out a frozen pipe, bundle a news¬ 
paper into a torch, light it, and pass it along the pipe slowly. The ice will yield to 
this much quicker than to hot water or wrappings of hot cloths, as is the common 
practice. 

To Prevent Mold. A small quantity of carbolic acid added to 

paste, mucilage, and ink, will prevent mold. An ounce of the acid to a gallon of 
whitewash will keep cellars and dairies from the disagreeable odor which often 
taints milk and meat kept in such places. % 

Economical Fire Kindler. One may be made by dipping corn 

cobs in a mixture of melted resin and tar, and drying. 

Thawing Frozen Gas Pipe. Mr. F. H. Shelton says: “I took 

offfrom over the pipe some four or five inches, just a crust of earth, and then put a 
couple of bushels of lime in the space, poured water over it, and slacked it, and 
then put canvas over that, and rocks on the canvas, so as to keep the wind from get¬ 
ting underneath. Next morning, on returning there, I found that the frost had beer* 
drawn out from the ground for nearly three feet. You can appreciate what an ad¬ 
vantage that was, for picking through frozen ground, with the thermometer below 
zero, is no joke. Since then we have tried it several times. It is an excellent plan 
if you have time enough to let the lime work. In the daytime you cannot afford to 
waste the time, but if you have a spare night in which to work, it is worth while to 
try it.” 

How to Test a Thermometer. The common thermometer in a 

japanned iron case is usually inaccurate. To test the thermometer, bring water 
into the condition of active boiling, warm the thermometer gradually in the steam 
and then plunge it into the water. If it indicate a fixed temperature of two hundred 
and twelve degrees, the instrument is a good one. 

How to Keep Eggs Fresh. The great secret in keeping eggs 

consists in entirely excluding the air from the interior. The lining next to the shell 
is, when in its natural stage, impervious to air, and the albumen is Calculated to sus¬ 
tain it, but dampness and heat will cause decay, and, if the egg is allowed to lie in 
one position, especially upon one side, the yolk sinks through the albumen and set¬ 
tles upon the lining, and, not possessing proper qualities for preserving the skin in 
a healthy condition, it dries, and air penetrates and begins the work of destruction.. 
Where eggs are set upon their small ends, the yolk is much less liable to reach 
the lining of the shell. Where eggs are packed in a barrel, keg or bucket, it is a 
good plan to turn the whole quantity onto a different side once in a while. 

Indelible Ink. An indelible ink that cannot be erased, even 

with acids, can be obtained from the following recipe; To good gall ink add a 
strong solution of Prussian blue dissolved in distilled water, d his will form a writ¬ 
ing fluid which cannot be erased without destruction of the paper. The ink will 
write greenish blue, but afterward will turn black. 

337 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Get a Broken Cork Out of a Bottle. If in drawing a cork, it 

breaks, and the lower part falls down into the liquid, tie a long loop in a bit of 
twine, or small cord, and put it in, holding the bottle so as to bring the piece of cork 
near to the lower part of the neck. Catch it in the loop, so as to hold it stationary. 
You can then easily extract it with a corkscrew. 

A Wash for Cleaning Silver* Mix together half an ounce df 
fine salt, half art crtirtce of powdered alum, and half an ounce of cream of tartar. Pill 
them into a large white-ware pitcher, and pour on two quarts of water, and stir them 
frequently, till entirely dissolved. Then transfer the mixture to clean bottles, and 
cork them closely. Before using it, shake the bottles well. Pour some of the liquid 
into a bowl, and wash the silver all over with it, using an old, soft, fine linen cloth. 
Let it stand about ten minutes, and then rub it dry, with a buckskin. It will make the 
silver look like new. 

To Remove the Odor from a Vial. The odor of its last contents 

may be removed from a vial by filling it with cold water, and letting it stand in any 
airy place uncorked for three days, changing the water every day. 

To Loosen a Glass Stopper. The manner in which apotheca¬ 
ries loosen glass stoppers when there is difficulty in getting them out, is to press the 
thumb of the right hand very hard against the lower part of the stopper, and then 
give the stopper a twist the other way, with the thumb and forefinger of the left 
hand, keeping the bottle stiff in a steady position. 

; To Make Shoes or Boots Water-Proof. Melt together, in a 

{ >ipkin, equal quantities of beeswax and mutton suet. While liquid rub it over the 
eather, including the soles. 

To goften Boots and Shoes. Kerosene will soften boots and 

shoes which have been hardened by water, and render them as pliable as new. 

To Remove Stains, Spots, and Mildew from Furniture. Take 

half a pint of ninety-eight per cent, alcohol, a quarter of an ounce each of pulver¬ 
ized resin and gum shellac, add half a pint of linseed oil, shake well and apply with 
a brush or sponge. Sweet oil will remove finger marks from varnished furniture, 
and kerosene from oiled furniture. 

To Freshen Gilt Frames. Gilt frames may be revived by care¬ 
fully dusting them, and then washing with one ounce of soda beaten up with the 
whites of three eggs. Scraped patches should be touched up with gold paint. Cas¬ 
tile soap and water, with proper care, may be used to clean oil paintings. Other 
methods should not be employed without some skill. 

To Fill Cracks in Plaster. Use vinegar instead of water to 

mix your plaster of Paris. The resultant mass will be like putty, and will not “set” 
for twenty or thirty minutes, whereas if you use water the plaster will become hard 
almost immediately, before you have time to use it. Push it into the cracks and 
smooth it off nicely with a tableknife. 

To Toughen Lamp Chimneys and Glassware. Immerse the ar- 

ticle in a pot filled with cold water, to which some common salt has been added. 
Boil the water well, then cool slowly. Glass treated in this way will resist any sud¬ 
den change of temperature. 

To Remove Paint from Window-Glass. Rub it well with hot, 

sharp vinegar. 

To Clean Stovepipe. A piece of zinc put on the live coals in 

the stove will clean out the stovepipe. 

To Brighten Carpets. Carpets after the dust has been beaten 

out may be brightened by scattering upon them cornmeal mixed with salt and then 
sweeping it off. Mix salt and meal in equal proportions. Carpets should be thor¬ 
oughly beaten on the wrong side first and then on the right side, after which spots 
may be removed by the use of ox-gall or ammonia and water. 

Kerosene Stains in Carpets may be removed by sprinkling 

buckwheat flour over the spot. If,pne sprinkling is not enough, repeat. 

338 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

To Keep Flowers Fresh exclude them from the air. To do this 

wet them thoroughly, put in a damp box, and cover with wet raw cotton or wet 
newspaper, then place in a cool spot. To preserve bouquets, put a little saltpetre 
in the water you use for your bouquets, and the flowers will live for a fortnight. 

To Preserve Brooms. Dip them for a minute or two in a 
kettle of boiling suds once a week and they will last much longer, making them 
tough and pliable. A carpet wears much longer swept with a broom cared for in 
this manner. 

To Clean Brassware. Mix one ounce of oxalic acid, six 

ounces of rotten stone, all in powder, one ounce of sweet oil, and sufficient water 
to make a paste. Apply a small proportion, and rub dry with a flannel or leather. 
The liquid dip most generally used consists of nitric and sulphuric acids, but this is 
more corrosive. 

Polish or Enamel for Shirt Bosoms is made by melting to¬ 
gether one ounce of white wax and two ounces of spermaceti; heat gently and turn 
into a very shallow pan; when cold cut or break in pieces. When making boiled 
starch the usual way, enough for a dozen bosoms, add to it a piece of the polish the 
size of a hazel nut. 

To Keep Out Mosquitoes. If a bottle of the oil of pennyroyal is 

left uncorked in a room at night, not a mosquito, nor any other blood-sucker, will 
be found there in the morning. 

Destruction of Rats. The following recipe for the destruction 
originated with Dr. Ure, and is highly recommended as the best known means of 
getting rid of these most obnoxious and destructive vermin. Melt hog’s lard in a 
bottle plunged in water, heated to about 150 degrees of Fahrenheit, introduce into 
it half an ounce of phosphorus for every pound of lard, then add a pint of proof 
spirit, or whisky, cork the bottle firmly after its contents have been heated to 150 de¬ 
grees, taking it at the same time out of the water, and agitate smartly until the phos¬ 
phorus becomes uniformly diffused, forming a milky-looking liquid. This liquid, 
being cooled, will afford a white compound of phosphorus and lard, from which the 
spirit spontaneously separates, and may be poured off to be used again for the same 
purpose, but not for drinking, for none of it enters into the combination, but it 
merely serves to comminute the phosphorus, and diffuse it in very small particles 
through the lard. This compound, on being warmed very gently, may be poured 
out into a mixture of wheat flour and sugar, incorporated therewith, and then 
flavored with oil of rhodium, or not, at pleasure. The flavor may be varied with oil 
of aniseed, etc. This dough, being made into pellets, is to be laid into rat holes. 
By its luminousness in the dark, it attracts their notice, and, being agreeable to their 
palates and noses, it is readily eaten, and proves certainly fatal. 

To Kill Cockroaches. A teacupful of well bruised plaster of 

Paris, mixed with double the quantity of oatmeal, to which a little sugar may be 
added, although this last named ingredient is not essential. Strew it on the floor, 
or into the chinks where they frequent. 

Earwigs are very destructive insects, their favorite food being 

the petals of roses, pinks, dahlias, and other flowers. They may be caught by driv¬ 
ing stakes into the ground, and placing on each an inverted flower pot, for the ear¬ 
wigs will climb up and take refuge under the pot, when they may be taken out and 
killed. Clean bowls of tobacco pipes, placed in like manner on the tops of smaller 
sticks, are very good traps, or very deep holes may be made in the ground with a 
crowbar, into which they will fall, and may be destroyed by boiling water. 

To Destroy Ants. Drop some quicklime on the mouth of their 

nest, and wash it in with boiling water, or dissolve some camphor in spirits of wine, 
then mix with water, and pour into their haunts, or tobacco water, which has been 
found effectual. They are averse to strong scents. Camphor, or a sponge saturated 
with creosote, will prevent their infesting a cupboard. To prevent their climbing 
up trees, place a ring of tar about the trunk, or a circle of rag moistened occasion¬ 
ally with creosote. 


339 


USEFUL RECIPES , ETC. 

• To Prevent Moths. In the month of April or May, beat your 

fur garments well with a small cane or elastic stick, then wrap them up in linen, 
without pressing them too hard, and put betwixt the folds some camphor in small 
lumps; then put your furs in this state in boxes well closed. When the furs are 
wanted for use, beat them well as before, and expose them for twenty-four hours to 
the air, which will take away the smell of the camphor. If the fur has long hair, as 
bear or fox, add to the camphor an equal quantity of black pepper in powder. 

To Get Rid of Moths. 1. Procure shavings of cedar wood, and 

inclose in muslin bags, which can be distributed freely among the clothes. 

2 . Procure shavings of camphor wood, and inclose in bags. 

3. Sprinkle pimento (allspice) berries among the clothes. 

4. Sprinkle the clothes with the seeds of the musk plant. 

6 . To destroy the eggs, when deposited in woolen cloths, etc., 
use a solution of acetate of potash in spirits of rosemary, fifteen grains to the pint 
Bed Bugs. Spirits of naphtha rubbed with a small painter’s 
brush into every part of the bedstead is a certain way of getting rid of bugs. The 
mattress and binding of the bed should be examined, and the same process attended 
to, as they generally harbor more in these parts than in the bedstead. Ten 
cents’ worth of naphtha is sufficient for one bed. 

Bug Poison. Proof spirit, one pint; camphor, two ounces; oil 

of turpentine, four ounces; corrosive sublimate, one ounce. Mix. A correspondent 
says, “I have been for a long time troubled with bugs, and never could get rid of 
them by any clean and expeditious method, until a friend told me to suspend a 
small bag of camphor to the bed, just in the center, overhead. I did so, and the 
enemy was most effectually repulsed, and has not made his appearance since—not 
eve* for a reconnoissance!” This is a simple method of getting rid of these pests, 
and is worth a trial to see if it be effectual in other cases. 

Mixture for Destroying Flies. Infusion of quassia, one pint; 

brown sugar, four ounces; ground pepper, two ounces. To be well mixed together, 
and put in small, shallow dishes when required. 

To Destroy Flies in a room, take half a teaspoonful of black 

pepper in powder, one teaspoonful of brown sugar, and one tablespoonful of cream, 
mix them well together, and place them in the room on a plate, where the flies are 
troublesome, and they will soon disappear. 

How to Destroy Insects. The Bureau of Entomology, Depart¬ 
ment of Agriculture, Washington, sends out the following, for use as insecticides on 
or about plants, etc.; London purple—To twenty pounds flour from one-quarter to 
one-half pound is added and well mixed. This is applied with a sifter or blower. 
With forty gallons of water one-quarter to one-half pound is mixed for spraying. 
Paris Green—With twenty pounds of flour from three-quarters to one pound is mixed 
and applied by sifting or by a blower. The same amount of the insecticide to forty 
gallons of water is used as a spray. Bisulphate of Carbon—For use in the ground 
a quantity is poured or injected among the roots that are being infected. Against 
insects damaging stored grain of museum material a small quantity is used in an 
air-tight vessel. Carbolic Acid—A solution of one part in ioo of water is used against 
parasites on domestic animals and their barns and sheds; also on the surface of 
plants and among the roots in the ground. Helebore—The powder is sifted on alone 
or mixed one part to twenty of flour. With one gallon of water one-quarter pound 
is mixed for spraying. Kerosene-Milk Emulsion—To one part milk add two parts 
kerosene, and churn by force pump or other agitator. The butter-like emulsion is 
diluted ad libitum with water. An easier method is to simply mix one part kerosene 
with eight of milk. Soap Emulsion —In one gallon hot water one-half pound whale 
oil soap is dissolved. This, instead of milk, is mixed to an emulsion with kerosene 
in the same manner and proportion as above. Pyrethrum, Persian Insect Powder 
—Is blown or sifted on dry, also applied in water one gallon to a tablespoonful 
of the powder, well stirred and the.n sprayed.. Tobacco Decoction—This is made as 
strong as possible as a wash or spray to kill insect pests on animals and plants. 

.340 


300 FACTS ABOUT POULTRY. 

- >—m ! • r 

Characteristics of the Various Breeds Concisely Stated. 


Races. 

3 o - 


Crevecoeur. 

Houdan. 

La Bresse, black_ 

La Bresse, gray. 


Barbezieux .... 

La Flechre ..v 

Le Mans. 

Gournay,...;.. 
Courtes Pattes. 
Andalusian. .. t 

Brahma . 

Campine, silver span¬ 
gled. 

Cochin, cinnamon... 

Game . 

Cosaque.___ 

Dominique. 

Doricing. I.....;...'. 

Spanish ............ 

H a‘tnb u r g, silver 

spangled. 

Dutch," black... 
Langshan...... 

beg-h'orn, silver 

spangled.... 

Polands, golden 

spangled.. 

Scotch Grey. 

Bantam, silver span¬ 
gled .. 

Game Bantam...... 

Nagasaki. ... 

Silkies...... 


1 Weight of Chick, one 
day old." 

Daily Increase of the 

Weight of Chick 

during 20 days. 

Annual Laying. 

Weight of Eggs. 

" , i. c . 

Quantity of Food 

Daily. ' 

Average' Weight of 

Flesh at 6 months. 

Average Weight of 

Bone. 

oz. 

oz. 

E’gs 

oz. 

oz. 

lbs. oz. 

oz. dr. 

1 9-16 

5-16 

122 

2 3-4 

'7 

4 10 

7 15 

1 3-8 

11-32 

125 

2 3-16 

6 13-16 

3 15 


1 7-16 

1-4 

160 

2 13-16 

6 13-16 

3 8 

5 VA 

1 5-16 

1-4 

150 

1 7-8 

, rn . y^ 

5 1-4 

3 7 

5 1 :% 

1 10-16 

,5-16 

140 

2 7-16 

6 10-16 

4 11 

8 m 

1 1-2 

7-32 

140 

2 7-16 

6 13-16 

3 6 

6 5k 

1 10-16 

5-16 

111 

2 1-4 

6 14-16 

4 5 

7 12 

1 3-16 

3-16 

140 

2 7-16 

4 11-16 

2 10 

4 9 

1 1-4 

3-16 

150 

2 3-16 

6 10-16 

3 10 

5 

1 5-16 

1-4 

165 

2 7-16 

6’12-16 

3 1 

5 13 

1 5-8 

7-32 

T l 

120 

2 1-4 

9 1_ ? 

4 11 

10 15 * 

1 1-16 

3-16 

225 

1 11-16 

5 1-2 

2 3 

4 3 % 

1 43-16 

3-16 

115 

21.16 

10 1-2 

4 ‘9 

14 4k 

1 5-16 

7-32 

100 

2 7-16 

5 1-4 

3 10 

4 6k 

1 3-16 

1-4 

120 

2 3-16" 

4 1-4 

2 15 

4 15 

1 1-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

4 3-4 

3 11 

5 5% 

1 7-16 

11-32 

130 

1 15-16 

6 13-16 

5 4 

7 6A 

1 5-16 

7-32 

160 

2 3-4 

6 13-16 

3 1 

9 8 % 

1 2-16 

7-32 

239 

1 11 16 

5 1-4 

2 3% 

4 6A 

1 1-16 

2-16 

98 

2 

5 1-2 * 

2*3 

4 9 

1 5-8 

5-16 

115 

2 3-16 

7 

*5 *4 

10 10^ 

1 1-4 

1-4 

190 

2 7-32 

6 

3 15 

7 0% 

1 3-16 

3-16 

100 

2 1-16 

4 ' 

2 13 

4 12 

1 1-4 

7-32 

110 

2 7-32 

6 13-16 

s 4% 

4 15 

9-16 


80 

1 4-8 

2 7-g 



7-16 

;,T 

1 90 

11-32 

2 3-4 




95 

1 3-32 

3 1-8 



3-4 


98 

1 1-4 

3- 9-16 






. 

- 


Below are given-soil and* climate best adapted for 
the various; breeds, rate of development, quality of 
flesh, etc., etc. The-numbers in first column of 
preceding* table refer to further descriptiofi and char¬ 
acteristics of. same breeds in paragraphs following: 
i. Grass soil, mild climate, fears fog, develops rapidly and fattens 
_ easily, does not set, flesh exquisite white and delicate. 

Calcareous soil, any climate, very rapid development, incubation nil, flesh 

delicate. 341 




















































FACTS ABOUT POULTRT. 

3. Grass, hardy in all climates, fattens quickly, good sitters, does not steal nest, 
flesh exquisite. 

4. Any climate, fattens quickly, incubation nil, flesh very good. 

5. Mild climate, dry soil, development slow, incubation good, flesh delicate. 

6 . Mild climate, dry soil, development slow, fattens easily, incubation nil, flesh 
very delicate. 

7. Dry soil, any climate, rapid development, incubate rarely, delicate flesh. 

8. Grass soil, any climate, pretty rapid development, incubate rarely, flesh good. 

9. Dry soil, hardy in all climates, development middling, incubation good but 
late, good flesh. 

10. Dry soil and warm climate, development middling, incubation nil, flesh del¬ 
icate. 

n. Hardy, dry soil, any climate, development slow, incubation excellent, good 
mothers, flesh fair. 

12. Hardy race, any climate, require much space, development middling, incu¬ 
bation nil, flesh good. 

13. Hardy in any climate, develop very slowly, incubation excellent, good 
mothers but heavy, flesh stringy. 

14. Hardy in any climate, development rapid, incubation capital, good mothers, 
flesh excellent. 

15. Very hardy race in any climate, development rapid, incubation nil, flesh deli¬ 
cate. 

16. Hardy in any climate, development middling, incubation very good, excel¬ 
lent mothers, flesh good. 

17. Grass soil and mild climate, develop very rapidly, incubate well, very good 
mothers, flesh very delicate and juicy. 

18. Delicate race, sandy soil and warm climate, develop slowly, long time 
feathering, incubation rare, flesh delicate. 

19. Any soil or climate, development middling, incubation very rare, flesh deli¬ 
cate. 

20. Delicate breed, require grass soil, development middling, incubation nil, 
flesh pretty good. 

21. Very hardy in any climate, develop rapidly, incubation good, most excellent 
mothers, flesh excellent. 

22. Very hardy in any climate, develop rapidly, incubate very rarely, flesh indif¬ 
ferent. 

23. Delicate race, fear damp, development not very rapid, incubation rare, flesh 
delicate. 

24. Delicate race, grass soil, development middling, incubation nil, flesh good. 

25. Very delicate breed, dry soil, development middling, incubation pretty good. 

26. Delicate, dry soil, development middling, incubation good—must not be dis¬ 
turbed. 

27. Sandy soil, development middling, incubation indifferent, flesh good. 

20. Very hardy race in any climate, develop rapidly, excellent incubation, flesh 
very bad. 


The “Poor Man’s Region,” in the Pine Barrens of the 

Southern States, is a belt of country more than seventeen hundred miles long and 
often one hundred and seventy miles broad, stretching from Richmond, Va., along 
the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, to beyond the western line of Louisiana. The soil is 
sandy and the principal tree is the long-leaf pine. These forests, while affording a 
valuable article of lumber, also yield pitch, tar and turpentine. 

The first proposer of secession in the United States Congress 

wasjosjah Quincy, of Massachusetts, in 1811, who said that, if Louisiana were ad¬ 
mitted into the Union, “it will be the right of all and the duty of some [of the States] 
definitely to prepare for a separation—amicably if they can, violently if they must.” 
Mr. Poindexter, of Mississippi, called him to order as did the Speaker of the House; 
but on appeal the Speaker’s decision was reversed, and Mr. Quincy sustained by a 
vote of fifty-three ayes to fifty-six noes, on the point of order. 

342 



DUCKS, GEESE AND TURKEYS. 


Breeds. 

Live 

weight 

in 

pounds. 

Live 
weight 
of Hen 

Age at 
maturi¬ 
ty, mos. 

Cost of 
raising 
to ma¬ 
turity. 

Annual 
cost of 
keepi’g. 

Av. val. 
of eggs 
laid per 
year. 

Ducks, common. 

3 

3 

6 

75 

1.00 

90 

Ducks, Aylesbury. 

7 

6 

18 

1.00 

1.00 

80 

Ducks, Cayuga. 

6 

5fo 

15 

90 

1.00 

1.00 

Ducks, Pekin. 

6 

6$ 

18 

1.10 

1.00 

75 

Ducks, Rouen.. 

7 X 

6 j 4 

24 

1.10 

1.00 

80 

Geese, common. 

8 

7 

12 

1.25 

1.50 

20 

Geese, African. 

20 

18 

24 

1.75 

2-00 

30 

Geese, Egyptian. 

7 

6 

12 

1.00 

1.50 

40 

Geese, Embden. 

18 

15 

30 

1.75 

2.00 

20 

Geese, Toulouse. 

22 

20 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

40 

Turkeys, common. 

12 

10 

12 

1.20 

1.50 

50 

Turkeys, black. 

15 

12 

18 

1.75 

1.75 

50 

Turkeys, bronze ... 

24 

15 

36 

2.00 

2.00 

50 

Turkeys, buff. 

15 

12 

24 

1.75 

1.50 

50 

Turkeys, Narragansetts .... 

22 

14 

30 

1.75 

1.75 

50 


The annual supply of eggs in the United States is estimated at over 500 . 000 ,- 
000 dozen, and, at the low price of sixteen cents per dozen, represents a value of 
over $ 80 , 000 , 000 —double the value of the product of our silver mines. 


Fate of the Apostles. 

The following brief history of the fate of the Apostles may be 
new to those whose reading has not been evangelical : 

St. Matthew is supposed to have suffered martyrdom or was 
slain with the sword at the city of Ethiopia. 

St. Mark was dragged through the streets of Alexandria, in 
Egypt, till he expired. 

St. Luke was hanged upon an olive tree in Greece. 

St. John was put into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome and 
escaped death. He afterward died a natural death at Ephesus 
in Asia. 

St. James the Great was beheaded at Jerusalem. 

St. James the Less was thrown from a pinnacle or wing of the 
temple and then beaten to death with a fuller’s club. 

St. Philip was hanged up against a pillar at Hieropolis, a city 
of Phrygia. 

St. Bartholomew was flayed alive by the command of a bar¬ 
barous king. 

St. Andrew was bound to a cross, whence he preached unto 
the people till he expired. 

St. Thomas was run through the body with a lance at Caro- 
mandel, in the East Indies. 

St. Jude was shot to death with arrows. 

St. Simon Zealot was crucified in Persia. 

St. Matthias was first stoned and then beheaded. 

St. Barnabas was stoned to death by Jews at Salania. 

St. Paul was beheaded at Rome by the tyrant Nero. 

343 





























How to Tell the Age of a Horse. 

The safest way of determining the age of a horse 
is by the appearance of the teeth, which undergo 
certain changes in the course of years. 

Eight to fourteen days after birth, the first middle nippers of the 
set of milk teeth are cut (Fig. i), four to six week* afterwards the 
pair next to them (Fig. 2), and finally, after six or eight months, the 
last (Fig. 3). 

All th'se milk teeth have a well defined body and neck, and a slender fang, and 
on their front surface grooves of furrows, which disappear from the middle nippers 
at the end of one year, from the next 
pair in two years, and from the in¬ 
cisive teeth (cutters) in three years. 

At the age of two the nippers be¬ 
come loose and fall out, in their 
places appear two permanent 
teeth, with deep, black cavities, and 
full, sharp edges (Fig. 4). 

At the age of three, the next pair 
(Fig. 5) fall out. 

At four years old, the corner teeth 
fall out(Fig. 6). 

At five years old, the horse has 
his permanent set ot teeth. 

The teeth grow in length as the 
horse advances in years, but at the 
same time his teeth are worn away 
by use about one-twelfth of an 
inch every year, so that the black 
cavities of the center nippers below disappear in the sixth year (Fig 7), those of the 
next pair in the seventh year (Fig. 8), and those of the corner teeth in the eighth 
year (Fig. 9). Also the outer corner teeth of upper and lower jaw just meet at eight 
years of age. 

At nine years old, cups leave the two center nippers above, and each of the two 
upper corner teeth has a little sharp protrusion at the extreme outer corner (Fig. xo). 

At the age of ten, the cups disappear from the adjoining teeth. 

At the age of eleven, the cups disappear from the corner teeth above, and are 
only indicated by brownish spots. 

The oval form becomes broader, and changes, from the twelfth to the sixteenth 
year, more and more into a triangular form, and the teeth lose, finally, with the 
twentieth year, all regularity. There is nothing remaining in the teeth that can after¬ 
wards clearly show the age of the horse, or justify the most experienced examiner in 
giving a positive opinion. 

The tushes, or canine teeth, conical in shape, with a sharp point, and curved, are 
cut between the third and fourth year, their points become more and more rounded 
until the ninth year, and after that, more and more dull in the course of years, and 
lose, finally, all regular shape. Mares have, frequently, no tusks, or only very 
faintly indicated. 

Age of Sheep and Goats. At one year old they have eight front 

teeth of uniform size. At two years the two middle ones are supplanted by two large 
ones. At three a small tooth appears on each side. At four there are six large 
teeth. At five all the front teeth are large, and at six all begin to get worn. 

Age of Cattle. A cow’s horn is supposed to furnish a correct 
indication of the age of the animal, but this is not always true. For ordinary pur¬ 
poses, however, the following will be found approximately correct: At two years of 
age a circle of thicker matter begins to form on the animal’s horns, which becomes 
clearly defined at three years of age, when another'circle begins to form, and an ad¬ 
ditional circle every year thereafter. The cow’s age then can be determined by 
adding two to the number of circles. The rings on a bull’s horns do not show them¬ 
selves until he is five years old—so in the case of a bull five must be added to the 
number of rings. Unless the rings are clear and distinct these rules will not apply. 
Besides, dishonest dealers sometimes file off some of the rings of old cattle. [344 




MEDICINES FOR THE HORSE. 


Name of Drug. 


Aloes 

Alum 

Anise Seed 
Aqua Ammonia 
Arsenic 

Asafcetida 
Bicarbonate of ) 
Potash j 

Bismuth 

Black Antimony 

Blue Vitriol 

Calomel 

Camphor 

Cantharides 

Carbolic Acid 

Castor Oil 

Cayenne 

Chlorate of Potash 
Copperas 
Croton Oil 
Digitalis Leaf 
Epsom Salts 
Ether 

Fowler’s Solution 
Gentian Root 
Ginger 

Glauber’s Salts 

Iodide of Potas- ) 
sium f 

Linseed Oil, Raw 

Magnesia 

Mercurial Ointm’t 
Nux Vomica 


Opium 

Prepared Chalk 
Quinine 

Saltpetre 

Soda Bicarb. 

Soda Sulphite 

Solution of Lime 
Sp’ts of Chlorofor’e 


Action and Use. 


Laxative and Tonic 
Astringent 

Aromatic and Stomachic 
Stimulant and Antacid 
j Alterative and Tonic For | 
j Paralysis, Mange, etc j 
Anti-spasmodic, Coughs, etc 
J Diuretic and Antacid. 

I For Rheumatism ) 

For Chronic Diarrhoea, etc 

Promotes the Secretions 

Astringent and Tonic 

Cathartic 

Anti-spasmodic 

Diuretic and Stimulant 

Externally and Disinfectant 

Cathartic 

Stimulant and Carminative 
Diuretic. For Bloating, etc 
Tcnic and Astringent 
Powerful Purgative 
Sedative and Diuretic 
Cathartic and Febrifuge 
Anti-spasmodic 

Used for Skin Diseases 

Tonic 

( Tonic, Stimulant & Stom- 1 
achic. For Flatulent Col- V 
ic. Dyspepsia, etc ) 

Cathartic 

( Diuretic and Alterative. 
For Rheumatism, Dropsy, 
Enlarged Glands, etc 
Cathartic and Nutritive 
j For colts as an Antacid 
I and Laxative 
j For Mange, Itch, Lice, 
j and other Parasites 
J Nervous Stimulant. For 
( Paralysis 


f Anodyne and Anti-spas -1 
j modic. Given in Colic, ! 

1 Incarnation of Bowgls, j 
[ Diarrhoea, etc J 

Antacid 

Tonic. During Convalescence 

Diuretic and Febrifuge 

Similar to Bicarb Potash 
( Antiseptic and Alterative. I 
( For Blood Diseases j 
f Antacid, an antidote to j 
| poisoning by acids j 

Anodyne & Anti-spasmodic 


Dose. 


Y to i oz 

2 to 3 drs 

Y to 2 oz 
i to 4 drs 

i to 5 grs 

1 to 3 drs 

3 to 5 drs 
Yt to x oz 

Y\ to Yt dr 

Yt to i dr 
io to 40 grs 
^ to 1 dr 
3 to 6 grs 

Y to 1 pt 

5 to 25 grs 
Y2 to 2 drs 

Yt to 1 Y2 drs 
10 to 15 d’ps 
10 to 20 grs 

2 to 8 oz 
Yt to 2 oz 

1 to 4 drs 

1 to 2 drs 

2 to 5 drs 

6 to 12 ozs 

Yt to \Y drs 

1 to 2 pts 

Y to 1 oz 


15 to 25 grs 


% to 1 dr 

Yt to x oz 
15 to 50 grs 

1 to 3 drs 

3 to 8 drs 
Y to i oz 

4 to 6 ozs 
1 to 2 ozs 


Antidote. 


Vinegar 

Magnesia and oil 

j Vinegar and raw 
( Linseed Oil 

Infusion of oak 
bark. Give also 
Linseed Oil 
Eggs, Milk, etc 
Eggs and Milk 

Eggs, soap, gruel 


Opium 

Stimulate 


j Hydrated Perox- 
) ide of Iron 


Give freely starch 
or flour, with 
water largely 


j Whites of eggs 
I with milk, freely 
fSalaratus, follow- 
J e d quickly b y 
1 copperas, dissolv- 
[ ed in water 
f Belladonna, str’g 
j coffee, brandy & 
-( ammonia. Dash 
cold water on and 
[keep horse movi’g 


j Linseed oil large- 
I ly, raw 


345 
















MEDICINES FOR THE HORSE.— Continued. 


Name of Drug. 


Strychnia 

Sulphur 

Sweet Sp’ts Nitre 
Tannic Acid 
Tartar Emetic 

Tin. Aconite Root 

Tin. Cantharides 
Tincture Ergot 
Tincture Iodine 

Tincture Iron 
Tr. Nux Vomica 
Tincture Opium 
White Vitriol 



Action and Use. 

Dose. 

1 

1 

Tonic & Stimulant. For ) 
Paralysis j 

Alterative and Laxative. 1 
Skin diseases, Rheu’tism j 
)iuretic and Diaphoretic. 

Y to i gr 

Yt to 2 OZ 

Yz to lY OZ 

Astringent 

20 to 40 grs 

Sedative and Alterative 

YitoYidr 

Sedative. For Lung Fever,etc 

iS to 35 d’ps 

Stimulant and Tonic 

1 to 2 drs 

Parturient 

1 to 2 OZ 

Used externally 
j Tonic and Astringent. | 

| For Typhoid Diseases T 

Yl to I OZ 

j Tonic. Stimulant in Par- 1 
) alysis and Dyspepsia } 

Anodyne and Anti-spasmodic 

> to 4 drs 

I tO 2 0 ZS 

j Astringent. For Wounds 1 
j Cuts & Sores, in solution ) 

5 to 15 grs 


Antidote. 


Tobacco 


Tannic Acid 
Small do&s o f 
Nux Vomica, stim¬ 
ulants largely, & 
L keep moving 


See Nux Vomica 
See Opium 
Milk, eggs & flour 


For a colt one month old, give one twenty-fourth of the full dose for an adult 
horse as given above; three months old, one-twelfth; six months old, one-sixth; one 
year old, one-third; two years old, one-half; three years old, three-fourths. 


The Seven Bibles of the World 

Are the Koran of the Mohammedans, the Eddas of the Scandi¬ 
navians, the Try Pitikes of the Buddhists, the Five Kings of the 
Chinese, the Three Vedas of the Hindoos, the Zendavesta, and 
the Scriptures of the Christians. The Koran is the most recent 
of these seven Bibles, and not older than the seventh century of 
our era. It is a compound of quotations from the Old and New 
Testaments, the Talmud, and the Gospel of St. Barnabas. The 
Eddas of the Scandinavians were first published in the fourteenth 
century. The Pitikes of the Buddhists contain sublime morals 
and pure aspirations, and their author lived and died in the sixth 
century before Christ. There is nothing of excellence in these 
sacred books not found in the Bible. The sacred writings of the 
Chinese are called the Five Kings, king meaning web of cloth, 
or the warp that keeps the threads in their place. They contain 
the best sayings of the best sages on the ethico-political duties of 
life. These sayings cannot be traced to a period higher than the 
eleventh century B.C. The Three Vedas are the most ancient 
books of the Hindoos, and it is the opinion of Max Muller, Wil¬ 
son, Johnson, and Whitney that they are not older than eleven 
centuries B.C. The Zendavesta of the Persians is the grandest 
of all the sacred books next to our Bible. Zoroaster, whose say¬ 
ings it contains, was born in the twelfth century B.C. Moses 
lived and wrote his Pentateuch fifteen centuries B.C., and, 
therefore, has a clear margin of 300 years older than the most 
ancient of the sacred writings. 

346 
















CANARY BIRDS. 

HOW TO KEEP THEM HEALTHY AND IN GOOD SONG. 

Place the cage so that no draught of air can strike the bird. 
Give nothing to healthy birds but rape, hemp, canary seed, 

I water, cuttle-fish bone, and gravel paper or sand on floor of cage. 

A bath three times a week. 

The room should not be overheated. 

When moulting keep warm and avoid all draughts of air. 

Give plenty of German summer rape seed. A little hard 

boiled egg mixed with cracker, grated fine, once or twice a week, is excellent. 

Feed at a certain hour in the morning. 

DISEASES AND CURES. 

Husk or Asthma. The curatives are aperients, such as en¬ 

dive, water cresses, bread and milk and red pepper. 

Pip. Mix red pepper, butter and garlic and swab out the 

throat. 

Sweating. Wash the hen in salt and water, and dry rapidly. 
Costiveness. Plenty of green food and fruit. 

Obstruction of the Rump Gland. Pierce with a needle. 

Press the inflamed matter out, and drop fine sugar over the wound. 

Lice. Keep a saucer of fresh water in the cage and the bird 

will free itself. 

Overgrown Claws or Beak. Pare carefully with a sharp 

knife. 

Moulting. Give plenty of good food and keep warm. Saf¬ 

fron and a rusty nail put in their drinking water is excellent. 

Loss of Voice. Feed with paste of bread, lettuce and rape 

seed- with yoke of egg. Whisky and sugar is an excellent remedy. 


What a Horse Can Draw. 

On metal rails a horse can draw: - 

One and two-thirds times as much as on asphalt pavement. 

Three and one-third times as much as on good Belgian blocks. 

Five times as much as on ordinary Belgian blocks. 

Seven times as much as on good cobble-stone. 

Thirteen times as much as on ordinary cobble-stone. 

Twenty times as much as on an earth road. 

Forty times as much as on sand. 

A modern compilation of engineering maxims states that a horse can drag, as 
compared with what he can carry on his back, in the following proportions: On 
the worst earthen road, three times more; on a good macadamized road, nine; on 
plank, twenty-five; on a stone trackway, thirty-three; and on a good railway, fifty? 
four times as much. 


Value of Foreign Money. 

Pound sterling of England, $4.84; guinea, $5.05; crown, $1.21; 
shilling, 24 cents; Napoleon of France, $3.84; five-franc, 96 
cents; franc, 18^ cents; thaler of Saxony, 68 cents; guilder of 
Netherlands, 40 cents; ducat of Austria, $2.28; florin of Austria, 
4834 cents; doubloon of Spain (1800), $15.54; real of Spain, 5 
cents; five roubles of Russia, $3.95; rouble, 75 cents; franc of 
Belgium, 18 % cents; ducat of Bavaria, $2.27; franc of Switzer¬ 
land, 18U cents; crown of Tuscany, $1.05^. 

347 





WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 


Troy Weight— 24 grains make 1 pennyweight, 20 penny¬ 
weights make i ounce By this weight, gold, silver and jewels only are weighed. 
The ounce and pound in this are same as in Apothecaries’ weight. 

Apothecaries’ Weight— 20 grains make one scruple, 3 

scruples make i dram, 8 drams make x ounce, 12 ounces make 1 pound. 

Avoirdupois Weight— 6 drams make 1 ounce, 16 ounces 

make one pound, 25 pounds make 1 quarter, 4 quarters make 1 hundredweight, 
2,000 pounds make 1 ton. 

Dry Measure— 2 pints make 1 quart, 8 quarts make 1 peck, 

4 pecks make i bushel, 36 bushels make 1 chaldron. 

Liquid or Wine Measure— 4 gills make 1 pint, 2 pints 
make 1 quart, 4 quarts make 1 gallon, 31% gallons make 1 barrel, 2 barrels make 1 
hogshead. 

Time Measure —60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes make 

1 hour, 24 hours make x day, 7 days make x week, 4 weeks make 1 lunar month, 28, 
29, 30 or 31 days make 1 calendar month (30 days make 1 month in computing 
interest), 52 weeks and 1 day, or 12 calendar months, make 1 year; 365 days, 5 hours, 
48 minutes and 49 seconds make 1 solar year. 

Circular Measure— 60 seconds make 1 minute, 60 minutes 

make 1 degree, 30 degrees make 1 sign, 90 degrees make 1 quadrant, 4 quadrants or 
360 degrees make 1 circle. 

Long Measure—Distance— 3 barleycorns 1 inch, 12 inches 

1 foot, 3 feet i yard, 5*4 yards 1 rod, 40 rods 1 furlong, 8 furlongs 1 mile. 

Cloth Measure— 2^ inches 1 nail, 4 nails 1 quarter, 4 

quarters i yard. 

Miscellaneous —3 inches one palm, 4 inches 1 hand, 6 

inches i span, 18 inches i cubit, 21.8 inches 1 Bible cubit, 7%. feet 1 military pace. 

Square Measure— 144 square inches 1 square foot, 9 square 
feet 1 square yard, 30% square yards 1 square rod, 40 square rods 1 rood, 4 roods t 
acre. 

Surveyors’ Measure— 7.92 inches 1 link, 25 links 1 rod, 4 

rods 1 chain, 10 square chains or 160 square rods x acre, 640 acres 1 square mile. 

Cubic Measure— 1,728 cubic inches 1 cubic foot, 27 cubic feet 

1 cubic yard, 128 cubic feet 1 cord (wood), 40 cubic feet 1 ton (shipping^, 2,150.42 
cubic inches 1 standard bushel, 268.8 cubic inches 1 standard gallon, 1 cubic foot 
four-fifths of a bushel. 

Metric Weights— 10 milligrams 1 centigram, 10 centigrams 

j decigram, 10 decigrams 1 gram, 10 grams 1 dekagram, 10 dekagrams 1 hekto- 
gram, 10 hektograms 1 kilogram. 

Metric Measures—(O ne milliliter—Cubic centimeter.)— 

10 milliliters 1 centiliter, 10 centiliters 1 deciliter, 10 deciliters 1 liter, 10 liters 1 
dekaliter, 10 dekaliters 1 hektoliter, 10 hektoliters 1 kiloliter. 

Metric Lengths— 10 millimeters 1 centimeter, 10 centi¬ 
meters .1 decimeter, 10 decimeters 1 meter, 10 meters 1 dekameter, 10 dekameters 1 
hektometer, 10 hektometers 1 kilometer. 

Relative Value of Apothecaries’ and Imperial 

Measure. 

Apothecaries. Imperial. 

j gallon equals . 6 pints, 13 ounces, 2 drams, 23 minims. 

J pint “ . 16 “ 5 *• 18 

x fluid ounce equals ... X o " 20 “ 

i fluid dram “ ... J 44 2 % 


348 







Handy metric 'Tables* 


The following tables give the equivalents of both the metric 

and common systems, and will be found convenient for reference: 

Approximate Accurate 

Equivalent. Equivalent. 

2]4 cubic centimeters. 2.539 

0.4 inch.(h393 

1 meter. 0.914 

lyard. 1.093 

30 centimeters. 30.479 

% mil e. 0.621 

V/i kilometers. 1.600 

15*4 grains. 15.432 

0.064 gramme. 0.064 

2.2 pounds avoirdupois. 2.204 

)4 kilogramme .0.453 

28 V 4 grammes. 28.349 

31 grammes.. 31.103 

1.06 cubic inch. 0.060 

16/4 cubic centimeters. 16.386 

1 United States standard quart... 0.946 

1 liter..... 1.057 

, 2934 cu bi c centimeters. 29.570 

• 2)4 acres. 2.471 

0.4 hectare. 0.40 


1 inch...[length].... 

1 centimeter. 

1 yard . 

1 meter (39.37 inches). 

1 foot. 

1 kilometer (1,000 meters). 

1 mile. . 

1 gramme.[weight]_ 

1 grain. 

1 kilogramme (1,000 grammes). 

1 pound avoirdupois... 

1 ounce avoirdupois (437^ grains). 

1 ounce troy, or apothecary (4S0 grains).. 

1 cubic centimeter '.. [bulk].... 

1 cubic inch. 

1 liter (1,000 cubic centimeters). 

1 United States quart. 

1 fluid ounce. 

1 hectare (10,000 square meters) [surface] 
1 acre..... 


It may not be generally known that we have in the nickel five-cent piece of our 
coinage a key to the tables of linear measures and weights. The diameter of this 
coin is two centimeters, and its weight is five grammes. Five of them placed in a 
row will, of course, give the length of the decimeter; and two of them will weigh a 
decagram. As the kiloliter is a cubic meter, the key to the measure of length 
is also the key to the measures of capacity. Any person, therefore, who is fortunate 
enough to own a five-cent nickle, may carry in his pocket the entire metric system 
of weights and measures. 


Handy Weights and Measures. 

One quart of wheat flour is one pound. One quart of corn 

meal weighs eighteen ounces. One quart of butter, soft, weighs fourteen to sixteen 
ounces. One quart of brown sugar weighs from a pound to a pound and a quarter, 
according to dampness. One quart of white sugar weighs one pound. Ten medium¬ 
sized eggs weigh one pound. A tablespoonful of salt is one ounce. F.ight table- 
spoonfuls make a gill. Two gills or sixteen tablespoonfuls, are half a pint. Sixty 
drops are one teaspoonful. Four tablespoonfuls are one wineglassful. Twelve 
tablespoonfuls are one teacupful. Sixteen tablespoonfuls, or half a pint, are one 
tumblerful. 

The Meaning of Measures— A square mile is equal to 640 

acres. A square acre is 208.71 feet on one side. An acre is 43,560 square feet. A 
league, 3 miles. A span, 10% inches. A hand, 4 inches. A palm, 3 inches. A 
great cubit, n inches. A fathom, 6 feet. A mile, 5,280 feet. 

Domestic and Drop Measures Approximated— A tea- 

spoonful, one fluid dram 4 grams; a dessertspoonful, two fluid drams 3 grams; 
a tablespoonful, half fluid ounce 16 grams; a wineglassful, two fluid ounces 64 
grams; a tumblerful, half pint 256 grams. 


The original Mrs. Partington was a respectable old lady who 

lived at Sidmouth, in Devonshire,"England. Her cottage was on the beach, and 
during a terrific storm (November, 1824) the sea rose to such a height as every now 
and then to invade the old lady’s residence. The old lady persistently mopped out 
the- water with such help as she could command, until finally she was compelled to 
retreat to an upper story. 








































PRACTICAL CALCULATIONS. 


Short Cuts in Arithmetic —Handy Tables for Ready Reckoning. 

To Ascertain the Weight of Cattle— Measure the girt 

close behind the shoulder, and the length from the fore part of the shoulder-blade 
along the back to the bone at the tail, which is in a vertical line with the buttock, 
both in feet. Multiply the square of the girt, expressed in feet, by ten times the 
length, and divide the product by three; the quotient is the weight, nearly, of the 
fore quarters, in pounds avoirdupois. It is to be observed, however, that in very fat 
cattle the fore quarters will be about one-twentieth more, while in those in a very 
lean state they will be one-twentieth less than the weight obtained by the rule. 

Rules for Measuring Corn in Crib, Vegetables, etc., 

and Hay in Mow —This rule will apply to a crib of any size or kind. Two cubic 
feet of good, sound, dry corn in the ear will make a bushel of shelled corn. To get, 
then, the quantity of shelled corn in a crib of corn in the ear, measure the length, 
breadth and height of the crib, inside the rail; multiply the length by the breadth 
and the product by the height, then divide the product by two, and you have the 
number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. 

To find the number of bushels of apples, potatoes, etc., in a bin, multiply the 
length, breadth and thickness together, and this product by eight, and point off one 
figure in the product for decimals. 

To find the amount of hay in a mow, allow 512 cubic feet for a ton, and it will 
come out very generally correct. 

To Measure Bulk Wood— To measure a pile of wood, 

multiply the length by the width, and that product by the height, which will give 
the number of cubic feet. Divide that product by 128, and the quotient will be the 
number of cords. A standard cord of wood, it must be remembered, is four feet 
thick; that is, the wood must be four feet long. Farmers usually go by surface 
measure, calling a pile of stove wood eight feet long and four feet high a cord. Un¬ 
der such circumstances thirty-two feet would be the divisor. 

How to Measure a Tree— Very many persons, when 

looking for a stick of timber, are at a loss to estimate either the height of the tree or 
the length of timber it will cut. The following rule will enable any one to approxi¬ 
mate nearly to the length from the ground to any position desired on the tree: Take 
a stake, say six feet in length, and place it against the tree you wish to measure. 
Then step back some rods, twenty or more if you can, from which to do the meas¬ 
uring. At this point a light pole and a measuring rule are required. The pole is 
raised between the eyes and the tree, and the rule is brought into position against 
the pole. Then by sighting and observing what length of the rule is required to 
cover the stake at the tree, and what the entire tree, dividing the latter length by 
the former and multiplying by the number of feet the stake is long, you reach the 
approximate height of the tree. For example, if the stake at the tree be six feet 
above ground and one inch on your rule corresponds exactly with this, and if then 
the entire height of the tree corresponds exactly with say nine inches on the rule, 
this would show the tree to possess a full height of fifty-four feet. In practice it 
will thus be found an easy matter to learn the approximate height of any tree, 
building, or other such object. 

To Measure Casks or Barrels— Find mean diameter by 

adding to head diameter two-thirds (if staves are but slightly curved, three-fifths) of 
difference between head and bung diameters, and dividing by two. Multiply square 
of mean diameter in inches by .7854, and the product by the height of the cask in 
inches. The result will be the number of cubic inches. Divide by 231 for standard 
or wine gallons, and by 282 for beer gallons. 

Grain Measure— To find the capacity of a bin or wagon- 

bed, multiply the cubic feet by .8 (tenths). For great accuracy, add y 3 of a bushel 
for every 100 cubic feet. To find the cubic feet, multiply the length, width and 
depth together. 

Cistern Measure— To find the capacity of a round cistern 
or tank, multiply the square of the average diameter by the depth, and take 3-16 of 

350 



PR A C TICaL CAL C UL A TIONS. 

the product. For great accuracy, multiply by .1865 instead of taking 3-16. For 
square cisterns or tanks, multiply the cubic feet by .2^ (tenths). 

Land Measure —To find the number of acres in a body of 

land, multiply the length by the width (in rods), and divide the product by 160. 
W hen the opposite sides are unequal, add them, and take half the sum for the mean 
length or width. 

Measures of Capacity —The following table, showing con¬ 
tents of boxes, will often be found convenient, taking inside dimensions : 

24 in. x 24 in. x 14.7 will contain a barrel of 31% gallons, 

15 in. x 14 in. x 11 in. will contain 10 gallons. 

8 % in. x 7 in. x 4 in. will contain a gallon. 

4 in. x 4 in. X3.6 in. will contain a quart. 

24 in. x 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels. 

16 in. x 12 in. x 11.2 in. will contain a bushel. 

12 in. x 11.2 in. x 8 in. will contain a half bushel. 

7 in. x 6.4 in. x 12 in.-will contain a peck. 

8.4 in. x 8 in. x 4 in. will contain a half peck, or 4 dry quarts. 

6 in. x s 3-5 in., and 4 in. deep, will contain a half gallon. 

4 in. x 4 in., and 2 1-10 in. deep, will contain a pint. 

Food for Stock. 

One hundred pounds of good hay for stock are equal to: Beets, 

white silesia, 669; turnips, 469; rye straw, 429; clover, red, green, 373; carrots, 371; 
mangolds, 368^: potatoes, kept in pit, 350: oat straw, 317; potatoes, 360; carrot 
leaves (tops), 135; hay, English, 100; Lucerne, 89; clover, red, dry, 88; buckwheat, 
78^; corn, 62^; oats, 59; barley, 58; rye, 53 wheat, 44%; oil-cake, linseed, 43; 
peas, dry, 37^; beans, 28. 

Number of Shrubs, Plants or Trees in an Acre. 


Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

Distances 

apart. 

No. of 
Plants. 

1 

by 1 

43,560 

5 

by 

2 

4,356 

15 

by 

15 

193 

1 X 

“ IX 

19,360 

5 

44 

3 

2,904 

16 

44 

16 

170 

2 

“ 1 

21,780 

5 

<4 

4 

2,178 

17 

4* 

17 

150 

2 

“ 2 

10,890 

5 

a 

5 

1,742 

18 

44 

18 

134 

2% 

“ 2J4 

6,969 

53^ 

it 

5 A 

1,417 

19 

44 

19 

120 

3 

“ 1 

14,520 

6 

(4 

6 

1,210 

20 

44 

20 

108 

3 

“ 2 

7,260 

VA 

<4 

t>X 

1,031 

24 

44 

24 

75 

3 

“ 3 

4.840 

7 

(4 

7 

888 

25 

44 

25 

69 

s l A 

“ $X 

3,555 

8 

44 

8 

680 

27 

44 

27 

59 

4 

“ l 

10,890 

9 

44 

9 

537 

30 

44 

30 

48 

4 

“ 2 

5,445 

10 

44 

10 

435 

40 

44 

40 

27 

4 

“ 3 

3,630 

11 

44 

11 

360 

50 

44 

50 

17 

4 

“ 4 

2,722 

12 

44 

12 

302 

60 

44 

60 

12 

4 ^ 

“ 4 ^ 

2,151 

13 

44 

13 

257 

66 

44 

66 

10 

5 

“ 1 

8,712 

14 

44 

14 

222 






The city of Ghent, Belgium, stands on tw'enty-six islands, con¬ 
nected with each other by eighty bridges. Thecity of Venice is built on eighty 
islands, connected by nearly 400 bridges. In Venice canals serve for streets and 
gondolas for carriages. 

Bricks and common pottery ware owe their red color to the 

iron naturally contained in the clay of which they are formed, the iron, by the ac¬ 
tion of the heat, being converted into red oxide of iron. Some varieties of clay, like 
that found near Milwaukee, contain little or no iron, and bricks made from such clay 
are consequently of a light yellow color. 

351 




















Quantity of Seeds Required for Planting: 


Asparagus. 

Beet. 

Carrot. 

Cabbage.... 
Cauliflower 

Celery. 

Egg plant. 

Endive. 

Lettuce.... 

Okra. 

Onion.. 

Parsnip.... 

Radish. 

Salsify.. 

Spinach ..., 
Tomato... . 
Turnip. 


Seeds, per ounce. 

Length of 

Drill, per oz. 

Vitality. 

Years. 

1,000 to 1,200 

50 feet 

4 to 6 

1,200 to 1,500 

100 “ 

6 “ 8 

20,000 to 24,000 

200 “ 

1 “ 3 

8,000 to 12,000 

Transplant 

4 “ 6 

50,000 to 60,000 

Transplant 

3 “ 5 

5,000 to 6,000 

Transplant 

5 “ 6 

20,000 to 24,000 

Transplant 

8 “ 10 

25.000 to 30,000 

400 feet 

5 “ 6 

500 to 600 

50 “ 

5 “ 6 

7,000 to 8,000 

200 “ 

1 “ 2 

5,000 to 6,000 

200 “ 

1 “ 2 

3,000 to 4,000 

100 “ 

4 “ 5 

2,500 to 3.000 

100 “ 

4 “ 5 

2,000 to 3,000 

100 “ * 

4 “ 5 

About 20,000 

Transplant 

4 “ 5 

8,000 to 12,000 

200 feet 

6 “ 7 


INI umber of Pounds to the Rusliel, Legal Weight, in tlie 

Different States. 


States. 

j Wheat. 

d 

Pi 

| Oats. 

| Barley. 

| Buckwheat. 

Shelled 

Corn 

Corn on 
the Cob. 

Corn Meal. 

Potatoes. 

Sweet 

Potatoes. 

Onions. 

Beans. 

Peas. 

Dried 

Apples. 

Anthracite 

Coal. 

Arkansas. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

• • • • 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

46 

24 

80 


65 

54 

32 

50 

40 

52 










Connecticut. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 


50 

60 


50 

60 

60 



Georgia. 

60 

56|32 

47 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

60 

24 

80 

Illinois. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

48 

60 

55 

57 

60 

.... 

24 

80 

Indiana. 

60 

56 


48 

50 

56 

68 

50 

60 

• • • • 

48 

60 

• • • • 

25 


Iowa. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

.... 

60 

46 

57 

60 

• • • • 

24 

80 

Kansas. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

.... 

24 

80 

Kentucky. 

60 

56 

32 

47 

55 

55 

70 

50 

60 

55 

57 

60 

60 

24 

76 

Maine. 

60 

50 

30 

48 

48 

56 

.... 

50 

60 

.... 

52 

64 

60 



M a^achnsetts. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 


50 

60 

56 

52 





Michigan. . 

60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 

70 

50 

60 

56 

54 

60 

60 

22 



60 

56 

32 

48 

42 

56 



60 





28 



60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 



60 


57 

60 


24 

* * * * 


60 

56 

32 



56 


50 

60 



60 

60 

...» 


60 

56 

30 

48 

50 

56 



60 

54 

57 

60 

60 

*25 



60 

56 

32 

48 

48 

56 



60 


62 

60 



60 

56 

0 

48 

50 

54 


46 




50 



Ohio. 

60 

56 

33 

48 

50 

56 

70 


60 

50 

50 

60 

60 

* 22 * 



60 

56 

32 

47 

48 

56 



56 







Rhode Island. 

. . 

56 

32 

48 


56 

• • • • 

50 

60 


50 





South Carolina.... 

60 

56 

33 

48 

56 

56 

70 

50 

60 

50 

57 

60 

60 

26 


Tennessee. 

.. 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

72 

50 

60 

50 

56 

60 

60 

26 



66 

56 

32 

4fc 

46 

52 



60 


56 

60 

60 



Virginia. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

52 

56 

70 

50 

60 

*56" 

57 

60 

60 

*28 

*80* 

Wisconsin. 

60 

56 

32 

48 

50 

56 

70 

• • • • 

60 


50 

60 

• • • • 

28 

.... 


Ants never sleep. Emerson mentions this as “a recently ob¬ 
served fact.” 

352 

























































































































Barbed Wire Required for Fences. 

Estimated number of pounds of barbed wire required to fence 
space or distances mentioned, with one, two or three lines of 
wire, based upon each pound of wire measuring one rod ( 16 % 
feet). 



1 Line. 

2 Lines. 

3 Lines. 

1 square acre.. 

... 50% lbs. 

101 % lbs. 

152 lbs. 

1 side of a square acre .. , 

... 12 % lbs. 

25% lbs. 

38 lbs. 

1 square half-acre. 

,.. 36 

lbs. 

72 

lbs. 

108 lbs. 

1 square mile. 

...1280 

lbs. 

2560 

lbs. 

3840 lbs. 

1 side of a square mile . , 

... 320 

Ibs. 

640 

lbs. 

960 lbs. 

1 rod in length. 

... 1 

lb. 

2 

lbs. 

3 lbs. 

100 rods in length . 

... 100 

lbs. 

200 

lbs. 

300 lbs. 


ioo feet in length*. 6 1-16 lbs. 12% lbs. 18 3-16 lbs. 


To Measure Corn or Similar Commodity on a Floor 
—Pile up the commodity in the form of a cone; find the diameter 
in feet; multiply the square of the diameter by . 7854 , and the 
product by one-third the height of the cone in feet; from this last 
product deduct one-fifth of itself, or multiply it by . 803564 , and 
the result will be the number of bushels. 

Contents of Fields and Lots— An acre is 43,560 square 
feet. The following table will assist farmers in making an ac¬ 
curate estimate of the amount of land in different fields under 


cultivation: 


10 rods 

X 16 rods 

= 1 

A. 

8 

U 

X 20 “ 

= 1 

u 

5 

U 

X 32 “ 

= 1 

u 

4 

ii 

X 40 “ 

= 1 

u 

5 

yards X 068 “ 

= 1 

u 

10 

U 

X 484 yds 

= 1 

a 

20 

ii 

X 242 “ 

= 1 

u 

40 

ii 

X 121 “ 

= 1 

u 

80 

ii 

X 60% “ 

1 = 1 

u 

70 

u 

X 69% “ 

= 1 

u 

220 

feet 

X 108 feet 

= 1 

ii 

440 

ii 

X 99 “ 

= 1 

u 

110 

u 

X 369 “ 

= 1 

u 

60 

u 

X 726 “ 

= 1 

u 

120 

u 

X 363 “ 

= 1 

u 

240 

u 

X 181% ft. 

= 1 

a 

200 

u 

X 108A “ 

- % 

a 

100 

u 

X 145 t % “ 

= X 

a 


100 ft. 

, X10SAft. = % A. 

25 “ 

X 100 

“ = .0574 “ 

25 “ 

X no 

“ = .0631.“ 

25 « 

X 120 

“ = .068S “ 

25 “ 

X 125 

“ = .0717 “ 

25“ 

X 150 

“ = .109 “ 

2178 square feet 

= .05 “ 

4356 

ii U 

= .10 “ 

6534 

u u 

= .15 “ 

8712 

U is 

= .20 “ 

10890 

U ii 

= .25 “ 

13068 

ii ii 

= .30 “ 

15246 

ii ii 

= .35 “ 

17424 

ii ii 

= .40 “ 

19603 

ii ii 

= .45 “ 

21780 

ii ii 

= .50 “ 

32670 

ii ii 

= .75 “ 

34848 

U ii 

= .80 “ 


There is a lake of pitch in the island of Trinidad, about a mile 

and a half in circumference. While the asphaltum near the shores is sufficiently 
hard at most seasons to sustain men and quadrupeds, it grows soft and warm toward 
the center, and there it is in a boiling state. 

353 












GRADE PER MILE, TIMBER, ETC. 


Grade per Mile —The following table will show the grade 
per mile as thus indicated: 

An inclination of-— 


1 foot in 
1 

1 « 

1 “ 

1 “ 


15 is 352 feet per mile 
20 is 264 “ “ 

25 is 211 “ 

30 is 176 “ 


1 foot 
1 “ 
1 “ 
1 “ 


in 40 is 132 feet per mile 
50 is 106 “ 

100 is 53 “ 

125 is 42 “ 


35 is 151 “ 


To Find the Quantity of Lumber in 
a Log— Multiply the diameter in inches at 
the small end by one-half the number of 
inches, and this product by the length of the 
log in feet, which last product divide by 12 . 

Example. How many feet of lumber can 
be made from a log 30 inches in diameter and 
14 feet long? 

30 X = 450 X 14 = 6300 - 12 = 525 

feet. A ns. 

To Tell the Soundness of Timber— Apply the ear to 
the middle of one of the ends, while another party strikes the 
other end. The blow will be clearly and distinctly heard, how¬ 
ever long the beam may be, if the wood is sound and of good 
quality, but if decay has set in, the sound will be muffled and in¬ 
distinct. The toughest part of a tree will always be found on 
the side next the north. 

The Number of Cubic Feet in a Round Log of Uni¬ 
form Diameter —Square the diameter, in inches, multiply by .7854, and multiply 
this product by the length in feet, divide by 144, and the quotient is the number 
of cubic feet. 

Number of Cubic Feet in the Trunk of a Standing 

Tree —Find the circumference in inches, divide by 3.1416, square the quotient, 
multiply by the length in feet, divide by 144, deduct about one-tenth tor thickness of 
bark, and the result will be, approximately, the number of cubic feet. 



Following are some curious facts about fishes. While natural¬ 
ists have generally accepted Cuvier’s view that the existence of fishes is silent, 
emotionless and joyless, recent observations tend to show that many fishes emit 
vocal sounds. The anabas scnndens , the climbing perch of India, quits the water 
and wanders over banks for considerable distances, and is even said to climb trees 
and bushes. At Tranquebar, Hindoostan, may be seen the strange spectacle of fish 
and shell-fish dwelling high on lofty trees. The perch there climbs up tall fan-palms 
in pursuit of certain shell-fish which form his favorite food. Covered with viscid 
slime, he glides smoothly over the rough bark. Spines, which he may sheathe and 
unfold at will, serve him like hands to hang by, and with the aid of side fins and a 
powerful tail he pushes himself upward. One species of fish, the sticklebacks, are 
known to build nests. There are several varieties of this fish, all natives of fresh 
water with one or two exceptions. They are found in the Ottawa River. The 
cyprinodon is a sightless fish which gropes in the dreary waters of the Mammoth 
Cave of Kentucky. 

Abraham’s purchase of the cave of Machpelah is the first re¬ 
corded commercial transaction. 

354 






BOARD AND PLANK MEASUREMENT AT SIGHT. 

This table gives the square feet and inches in boards or planks from 3 to 25 inches wide, and 4 to 
20 feet long. If a board be longer than 20 feet, or wider than 25 inches, unite two of the numbers. 



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355 


Explanation. —To ascertain the number of feet, multiply the number of feet in length by the 
number of inches in width, and divide the product by 12 ; the result will be the number in feet and 
inches. Thus, multiply 9 inches wide by 26 feet long, and the result will be 234. Divide this by 12 
and we have the product 19 feet and 6 inches. 















































































































Scantling and Timber Measure Reduced to One-Inch 

Board Measure. 

To ascertain the number of feet of scantling or timber, say 18 feet long and 2 by 
3 inches: Find 2 by 3 in the top columns, and 18 in the lelt hand column, and under 
2 by 3 and against 18 is 9 feet. If the scantling is longer than contained in the 
table, add two lengths together. If shorter, take part off same length. 


.j 

v 

V 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 



2 x 2 

2x3 

2x4 

2x5 

2 x 6 

2x7 

2 x 8 

2x9 

3x3 

3x4 

3x5 

3x6 

3x7 

3x8 

3x9 

4x4. 

6 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 

9. 

4 . 0 

6 . 

7.6 

9. 

10.6 

12 . 

13.6 

8 . 

7 

2.4 

3.6 

4.8 

, 5.10 

7. 

8.2 

9.4 

10.6 

5.3 

7. 

8.9 

10.6 

12.3 

14. 

15.9 

9.4 

8 

2.8 

4. 

5.4 

6.8 

8 . 

9.4 

10.8 

12 . 

6 . 

8 . 

10 . 

12 . 

14. 

16. 

18. 

10 . 

9 

3. 

4.6 

6 . 

7.6 

9. 

10.6 

12 . 

13.6 

6.9 

9. 

11.3 

13.6 

15.9 

18. 

2). 3 

12 . 

10 

3.4 

5. 

6.8 

8.4 

10 . 

11.8 

13.5 

15. 

7.6 

10 . 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20 . 

22.6 

13.4 

11 

3.8 

5.6 

7.4 

9.2 

11 . 

12.10 

14.8 

16.6 

8.3 

11 . 

13.9 

16.6 

19.3 

22 . 

24.9 

14.8 

12 

4. 

6 . 

8 . 

10 . 

12 . 

14. 

16. 

18. 

9. 

12 . 

15. 

18. 

21 . 

24. 

27. 

16. 

13 

4 4 

6.6 

8.8 

10.10 

13. 

15.2 

17.4 

19.6 

9.9 

13. 

16.3 

19.6 

22.9 

26. 

29.3 

17.4 

14 

4.8 

7. 

9.4 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21 . 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21 . 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

18.8 

15 

5. 

7.6 

10 . 

12.6 

15. 

17.6 

20 . 

22.6 

11.3 

j5. 

18.9 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

20 . 

16 

5.4 

8 . 

10.8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

12 

16 . 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

21.4 

17 

6.8 

8.6 

11.4 

14.2 

17. 

19.10 

22.8 

25.6 

i2.9 

17. 

21.3 

25.6 

29.9 

34. 

38 3 

22.8 

18 

6. 

9. 

12. 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

13.6 

18 . 

22.6 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6*24. 

19 

6.4 

9.6 

12.8 

15.10 

19. 

22.2 

25.4 

28.6 

14-3 

19. 

23.9 

28.6 

33.3 

38. 

42.9 

24.4 

20 

6.8 

10. 

13.4 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26 8 

30. 

15. 

20. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

26.8 

21 

7. 

10.6 

14. 

17.6 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

15.9 

21 . 

26.3 

31.6 

36.9 

42. 

47.3 

28. 

22 

7.4 

11. 

14.8 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

33. 

16.6 

22. 

27.6 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

29.4 

23 

7.8 

11.6 

15.4 

19.2 

23. 

26.10 

30.8 

34.6 

17.3 

23. 

28.9 

34.6 

40.3 

46. 

51.9 

30.8 

24 

8. 

12. 

16. 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

18. 

24. 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

32. 

25 

8.4 

12.6 

16.8 

20.10 

25. 

29.2 

3-3 4 

37.6 

18.9 

25. 

31.3 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

33.4 

30 

10. 

15. 

20. 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

22.6 

30. 

37.6 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

40. 

34 

11.4 

17. 

22.8 

28.4 

34. 

39.3 

45.4 

51. 

25.6 

34. 

42.6 

51. 

59.6 

68. 

76.6 

45.4 

40 

13.4 

20. 

26.8:33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4160. 

30. 

40. 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

53. 


THICKNESS AND WIDTH IN INCHES. 


V 

U* 

5x4 

4x6 

4x7 

4x8 

4x9 

5x5 

6 

10. 

12. 

14. 

Iff. 

18. 

12.6 

7 

11.8 

14. 

16.4 

18.8 

21. 

14.7 

8 

13.4 

16. 

18.8 

21.4 

24. 

16.8 

9 

15. 

18. 

21. 

24 

27. 

18.9 

10 

16.8 

20. 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

20.10 

11 

18.4 

22. 

25.8 

29.4 

S3. 

22.11 

12 

20. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

25. 

13 

21.8 

26. 

30.4 

34.8 

39. 

27.1 

14 

23.4 

28. 

32.8 

37.4 

42. 

29.2 

15 

25. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

31.3 

16 

26.8 

32. 

37.4 

42.8 

48. 

33.4 

17 

28.4 

.34. 

39.8 

45.4 

51. 

35 5 

18 

30. 

36. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

37.6 

19 

31.8 

38. 

44.4 

50.8 

57. 

39.7 

20 

33.4 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

41.8 

21 

35. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

43.9 

22 

36.8 

44 

51.4 

58.8 

66. 

45.10 

23 

38.4 

46. 

53.8 

61.4 

69. 

47.1.1 

24 

40. 

48. 

56. 

64. 

72. 

50. 

25 

41.8 

50. 

58.4 

66.8 

75. 

52.1 

30 

50. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

62.6 

34 

56.8 

68. 

79.4 

90.8102. 

70.10 

40 

66.8 

80. 

93.4106.8120. 

83.4 


5x6 

5x7 

5x8 

5x9 

15. 

17.6 

20 . 

22.6 

17.6 

20.5 

23.4 

26 3 

20 . 

23.4 

26.8 

30. 

22.6 

26.3 

30. 

33.9 

25. 

29 2 

33.4 

37 6 

27.6 

32.1 

36.8 

41.3 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

32.6 

37.11 

43.4 

48.9 

35. 

40.10 

46.8 

52.6 

37.6 

43.9 

50. 

56.3 

40. 

46.8 

53.4 

60. 

42.6 

49.7 

56.8 

63.9 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

47.6 

55.5 

63.4 

71.3 

50. 

58.4 

C 6.8 

75. 

52.6 

61.3 

70. 

78.9 

55. 

64.2 

73.4 

82.6 

57.6 

67.1 

76.8 

86.3 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

62.6 

72.11 

83.4 

93.9 

75. 

87.6 

100 . 

112.6 

85. 

99.2 

113.4 

127.6 

100 . 

116.8 

133.4 

150. 


6x6 

6x7 

6x8] 6x9 

6x10 

18. 

21. 

24. 

27. 

30. 

21. 

24.6 

28. 

31.6 

35. 

24. 

28. 

32. 

36. 

40. 

27. 

31.6 

36. 

40.6 

45. 

30. 

35. 

40. 

45. 

50. 

33. 

38.6 

44. 

49.6 

55. 

35. 

42. 

48. 

54. 

60. 

39. 

45.6 

52. 

58.6 

65. 

42. 

49. 

56. 

63. 

70. 

45. 

52.6 

60. 

67.6 

75. 

48. 

56. 

64 

72. 

80. 

51. 

69 6 

68. 

76.6 

85. 

54. 

63. 

72. 

81. 

90. 

57. 

66.6 

76. 

85.6 

95. 

60. 

70. 

80. 

90. 

100. 

63. 

73.6 

84. 

94.6 

105. 

66. 

77. 

88. 

99. 

110. 

69. 

80.6 

92. 

103.6 

115. 

72. 

84. 

96. 

108. 

120. 

75. 

87.6 

100. 

112.6 

125. 

90. 

105. 

120. 

135. 

150. 

102. 

119. 

136. 

153. 

170. 

120. 

140. 

160. 

180. 

200. 


356 

































































I^ogs Reduced to Xncli Board Measure 

Find the length of the log in feet in the left hand column, and its mean diameter 
in inches (found by adding the two end diameters and dividing their sum by two) at 
the heads of the other columns, and trace them until they meet, and the figures so 
found will express the diameter of feet board measure of inch boards the log will 
measure. 



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The Falls of Niagara have cut a channel through the solid 

rocks 200 feet deep, 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide and seven miles long. The evidence 
is conclusive that the falls were formerly at Queenstown, seven miles below their 
present situation. It has been shown that they have receded not more than a foot a 
year for the past half century. 

Alexander the Great was born in Europe, died in Asia, 

and was buried in Africa. The preparations for his funeral consumed two years’ 
time. The immense car containing the golden sarcophagus was drawn by sixty- 
four white mules, richly caparisoned, a distance of a thousand miles—from the 
Euphrates to the N ile. 

357 












































































Table For Gold Miners. 

To ascertain the quantity of gold in any bulk of ore it is not 
necessary to reduce the mass. A proportional reduction will 
suffice, and the following table is based on trials of four hundred 
grains of ore: 


If 400 Grains 
of Ore give 
Fine Gold, 

One Ton of 

Ore 

Will Yield 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

.001. 

0 

1 

15 

.002. 

0 

3 

6 

.003 . 

0 

4 

21 

.004. 

0 

6 

12 

.005. 

0 

8 

4 

.006 . 

0 

9 

19 

.007. 

0 

11 

10 

.008 . 

0 

13 

1 

.009. 

0 

14 

16 

.010. 

0 

16 

8 

.020. 

1 

12 

16 

.030. 

2 

9 

0 

.040 . 

3 

5 

8 

.050. 

4 

1 

16 

.060. 

4 

18 

0 

.070 . 

5 

14 

8 

.080. 

6 

10 

16 

.090. 

7 

7 

0 

.100. 

8 

3 

8 


If 400 Grains 
of Ore give 
Fine Gold, 

One Ton of 

Ore 

Will Yield 

Grains. 

Oz. 

Dwts. 

Grs. 

.200 . 

16 

6 

16 

.300 . 

24 

10 

0 

.400 . 

32 

13 

8 

.500 . 

40 

16 

16 

.600 . 

49 

0 

0 

.700 . 

57 

3 

8 

. .800 . 

65 

6 

16 

.900 . 

73 

10 

0 

1.000 . 

81 

13 

8 

2.000 . 

163 

16 

16 

3.000 . 

245 

0 

0 

4.000 . 

326 

13 

8 

5.000 . 

408 

6 

16 

6.000 . 

490 

0 

0 

7.000 . 

570 

13 

8 

8.000 . 

653 

6 

16 

9.000 . 

735 

0 

0 

10.000 . 

816 

13 

8 

20.000 .... 

1633 

6 

16 


The sayings of the Seven Wise Men are the famous mottoes 
inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi; Solon of Athens—“Know thyself.” 
Chilo of Sparta—“Consider the end.” Thales of Miletus—“Suretyship is the pre¬ 
cursor of ruin.” Bias of Priene—“Most men are bad.” Cleobulus of Lindus— 
“Avoid excess.” Pittacus of Mitylene—“Know thy opportunity.” Periander of 
Corinth—“Nothing is impossible to industry.” 

The “Wandering Jew” was last seen in the seventeenth cen¬ 
tury. On January 1 , 1644 , he appeared at Paris and created a great sensation 
among all ranks. He claimed to have lived sixteen hundred years and to have 
traveled through all regions of the world. He was visited by many prominent per¬ 
sonages, and no one could accost him in a language of which he was ignorant. He 
replied readily and without embarrassment to any questions propounded, and he was 
never confounded by any amount of cross-questioning. He seemed familiar with the 
history of persons and events from the time of Christ, and claimed an acquaintance 
with all the celebrated characters of sixteen centuries. Of himself he said that he 
was usher of the court of judgment in Jerusalem, where all criminal cases were 
tried at the time of our Saviour; that his name was Michab Ader; and that for thrust¬ 
ing Jesus out of the hall with these words, “Go, why tarriest thou? ” the Messiah 
answered him, “I go, but tarry thou till I come,” thereby condemning him to live 
till the day of judgment. The learned looked upon him as an impostor or mad¬ 
man, yet took their departure bewildered and astonished. 

358 


















































NAILS AND SPIKES. 

SIZE, LENGTH AND NUMBER TO POUND. 


ORDINARY. 


CLINCH. 


FINISHING. 


Size. 

Length. 

Inches. 

No. to Lb. 

2 d . 

.... 

..716 

3 fine. .1 T V.. 

...588 

3 . 

•••-lie•• 

...448 

4 . 

. 

...336 

5 . 


...216 

6 . 

....2 .. 

...166 

7 

• •• 234 •> 

.. .118 

8 

....2X.. 

...94 

10 . 

....2%.. 

...72 

12 ., 

■ • • • 3% . 

...50 

20 

....3% . 

...32 

30 .. 

...AH • 

.:. 20 

40 . 

....4%.. 

... 17 

50 .. 

. . . .5 .. 

...14 

60 . 

••• -5/4 -• 

...10 

4 d ., 

LIGHT. 

....IK • 

...373 

5 , 

...AH ■ 

...272 

6 .. 

. ^2 .. 

...196 

6 d ., 

BRADS. 

....2 .. 

...163 

8 ., 

....2K ■ 

...96 

10 .. 

....m ■ 

...74 

12 .. 

...3K • 

...50 


Length 




Length 


Inches. 

N 0. to Lb. 

Size. 

Inches. 

No. to Lb. 

2 . 


152 

4 d 

....1K-. 

...3S4 

2K- 


133 

5 . 

...iK.. 

. .256 

2K- 


92 

6 . 

....2 .. 

...204 

W - 

• « • • 

72 

8 . 

....2K-. 

. .102 

3 . 


60 

10 . 

....3 .. 

.. 80 

3K- 


43 

12 . 

... 3K-. 

.. 65 


FENCE. 


20 

....3K • 

...46 

2 . 


96 


CORE. 

..143 
.. 68 

2K- 

2K. 

2K- 

3 


66 

56 

6 . 
8 

... .2 . . 
....2K-. 


50 

10 . 

... 2K-. 

.. 60 


40 

12 . 

.... 3 %. . 

...42 



20 . 

... 3%.. 

.. 25 

SPIKES. 


30 

... Ah -. 

.. 18 

3K. 


19 

40 

....4K . 

...14 

4 . 


15 




4K- 

5 . 


13 

W 

H 2^.. 

.. 69 


10 

w 

H L2j^. . 

.. 72 

»K 

6 . 


9 

7 

od 

SLATE. 

...288 




3 



BOAT. 


4 


...244 

IK 


206 

5 

....1K-. 

...187 



6 

....2 .. 

...146 


In the above table d stands for penny. This term penny, as 
applied to nails, is generally supposed to have been derived from 
pound. It originally meant so many pounds to the thousand; 
that is. six-penny means six pounds of nails to the thousand. 


'Tacks. 


Size. 

Length. 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

Length, jj 

Number 

to 

Pound. 

Size. 

•a 

to 

c 

a 

Number 

to 

Pound, 

1 oz. 

K 

16000 

4 oz. 

7 

1 6 

4000 

14 oz. 

1 3 

1 S' 

1143 

IK 

T6 

10066 

6 

ul 

2666 

16 

K 

1000 

2 

K 

8000 

8 

K 

2000 

18 

15 
TIT 

888 

2K 

tV 

6400 

10 

xi 

1600 

20 

1 

800 

3 

K 

5333 

12 

K 

1333 

22 


727 


359 









































































































RAILROAD SPIKES 


Size Measured 
Under Head. 

Average No. 
per keg 
of 200 lbs. 

Ties two feet between centers, 
Four spikes per tie. 

Makes per Mile. 

Rail used. 
Wt. per Yard. 

5 /!j x t 9 6 

360 

5870 lbs.—29>< kegs. 

45 to 70 

5 x T % 

400 

5170 “ 

—26 

tt 

40 to 56 

5 x.% 

450 

4660 “ 

-23 y 3 

« 

35 to 40 


530 

3960 “ 

—20 

« 

28 to 35 

4 

600 

3520 “ 

- 17 % 

tt 

24 to 35 


680 

3110 “ 

-15 M 

tt 

| 20 to 30 

4 

720 

2940 “ 

— 14 M 

tt 


900 

2350 “ 

-UK 

tt 

j- 16 to 25 

4 x% 

1000 

2090 “ 

- 10 % 

k 

3^x^ 

3 

1190 

1240 

1780 “ 
1710 “ 

— 9 

- 834 

tt 

a 

j. 16 to 20 


1342 

1575 “ 

- 7 % 

it 

12 to 16 


RAILS REQUIRED PER MILE 

OF FOLLOWING WEIGHT PER YARD. 


Weight Tons of 2,240 lbs. 

per yard. per Mile. 


16 

lbs. 

25 tons, 

, 320 lbs. 

20 


31 

(< 

960 “ 

25 


39 

<< 

640 « 

28 

tt 

44 


0 « 

30 

tt 

47 

<< 

320 “ 

• 


CROSS TIE8, 

PER 

MILE. 


Center to Center. No. Ties. 


1) 4 Feet 

1% “ 

2 “ 

2^ M 

2 ) 6 “ 


3520 

3017 

2640 

2348 

2113 


Weight Tons of 2.240 lbs. 

per yard. per Mile. 


35 lbs. 


55 tons, 

0 

lbs. 

40 “ 


63 

tt 

1920 

tt 

45 “ 


70 

tt 

1600 

tt 

56 “ 


88 

tt 


tt 

60 “ 


94 

tt 

640 

tt 

65 “ 


102 

tt 

320 

tt 

70 “ 


110 

tt 

0 

tt 

SPLICE 

JOINTS, PER MILE. 

Two Bars and Four Bolts and Nuts to 



each 

Joint. 



Rails, 

20 

feet long, 

528 joints 

tt 

24 

tt 

tt 

440 

tt 

tt 

26 

tt 

tt 

406 

tt 

tt 

28 

t? 

tt 

378 

tt 

tt 

30 

tt 

tt 

352 

tt 


Nails Sleqairecl for ^Different Kinds of Worlt. 

For i,ooo shingles, 3 % to 5 lbs. 4 d. nails, or 3 to 3)^ lbs. 3^. 

1,000 laths, about 6 lbs. 3<f. fine. 

1,000 feet clapboards, about 18 lbs. 6 d. box. 

1,000 feet covering boards, about 20 lbs. 8 d. common, or 25 lbs. 10 d. 

1,000 feet upper floors, square edged, about 38 lbs. 10a'. floor, or 41 lbs. 
i2 d. floor. 

1,000 teet upper floors, matched and blind-nailed, 38 lbs. 10 d., or 42 lbs. 
12 d. common. 

10 feet partitions, studs or studding, 1 lb. 10 d. common. 

1,000 feet furring, 1x3, about 45 lbs. 10 d. common. 

1,000 feet furring, 1x2, about 65 lbs. 10 d. common. 

1,000 feet pine finish, about 30 lbs. 8 d. finish. 

360 






















Brick Required to Construct Any Building:, 

(Reckoning 7 brick to each superficial foot.) 


Superficial Feet of 


Number of Bricks to Thickness of 


Wall. 

4 in. 

8 in. 

12 in. I 

16 in. 

20 in. 

24 in. 

1.. 

7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

2 . 

15 

30 

45 

60 

75 

90 

3. 

23 

45 

68 

90 

113 

135 

4. 

30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

5. 

38 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

6. 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

7. 

53 

105 

#158 

210 

263 

315 

8. 

60 

- 120 

180 

240 

300 

360 

9. 

68 

135 

203 

270 

338 

405 

10.. 

75 

150 

225 

300 

* 375 

450 

20. 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

30. 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1125 

1350 

40. 

300 

600 

900 

1200 

1500 

1800 

50. 

375 

750 

1125 

1500 

1875 

2250 

60. 

450 

900 

1350 

1800 

2250 

2700 

70. 

525 

1050 

1575 

2100 

2625 

3150 

80. 

600 

1200 

1800 

2400 

3000 

3600 

90. 

675 

1350 

2025 

2700 

3375 

4050 

100. 

750 

1500 

2250 

3000 

3750 

4500 

200. 

1500 

3000 

4500 

6000 

7500 

9000 

300 . 

2250 

4500 

6750 

9000 

11250 

13500 

400. 

3000 

6000 

9000 

12000 

15000 

18000 

500. 

3750 

7500 

11250 

15000 

18750 

22500 

600. 

4500 

9000 

13500 

18000 

22500 

i 27000 

700 . 

5250 

10500 

15750 

21000 

26250 

' 31500 

800. 

6000 

1 12000 

18000 

24000 

30000 

1 36000 

900.. 

6750 

1 13500 

1 20250 

1 27000 

' 33750 

1 40500 

1000 . 

7500 

1 15000 

1 22500 

1 30000 

1 37500 

1 45000 


Facts for Builders. 

1,000 shingles, laid ± inches to the weather, will cover 100 sq. 

ft. of surface, and 5 lbs. of shingle nails will fasten them on. 

One-fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the number 
of square feet of surface to be covered, because of the lap in the siding and match- 

g i,ooo laths will cover 70 yards of surface, and 11 tt>s. of lath 

nails will nail them on. Eight bushels of good lime, 16 bushels of sand, and 1 
bushel of hair will make enough good mortar to plaster xoo square yards. 

A cord of stone, 3 bushels of lime, and a cubic yard of sand, 

will lay 100 cubic feet of wall. 

Cement 1 bushel and sand 2 bushels will cover 3 % square 
yards i inch thick, 4^ square yards % inch thick. 6 % square yards M inch thick. 
1 bu. cement and one of sand will cover 2% square yards 1 inch thick, 3 square 
yards % inch thick, and 4square yards inch thick. 

361 




















































FACTS FOR BUILDERS. 


Five courses of brick will lay i foot in height on a chimney. 
16 bricks in a course will make a flue 4 ins. wide and 12 ins. long, and 8 bricks in a 
course will make a flue 8 ins wide and 16 ins. long. 

Twenty-two cubic feet of stone, when built into the wall, is 1 

perch. 

Three pecks of lime and four bushels of sand are required to 

each perch of wall. 

There are 20 common bricks to a cubic foot when laid; and 15 
common bricks to a foot of 8-inch wall when laid. 

Fifty feet of boards will build one rod of fence five boards high, 
first board being xo inches wide, second 8 inches, third 7 inches, fourth 6 inches, 
fifth 5 inches. 

Useful Facts for Bricklayers and Blasterers. 

The average weight of smaller-sized bricks is about 4 lbs.; of 
the larger about 6 tbs. 

Dry bricks will absorb about one-fifteenth of their weight in 
water. 

A load of mortar measures a cubic yard, or 27 cubic ft; re¬ 
quires a cubic yard of sand and 9 bus. of lime and will fill 30 
hods. 

A bricklayer’s hod 1 ft. 4 in. by 9 in. by 9 in. equals 1,296 cubic 
in. in capacity, and contains 20 bricks. 

A single load of sand and other materials equals a cubic yard, 
or 27 cubic ft.; a double load twice that quantity. 

One thousand bricks, closely stacked, occupy about 56 cubic 
ft. One thousand old bricks, cleaned and loosely stacked, oc¬ 
cupy about 72 cubic feet. 

One superficial foot of gauged arches requires ten bricks. 

One superficial foot of facings requires seven bricks. 

One yard of paving requires 36 stock bricks laid flat, or 52 on 
edge, and 36 paving bricks laid flat, or 82 on edge. 

The bricks of different makers vary in dimensions, and those 
of the same maker vary also, owing to varying degrees of heat 
in burning. The calculations given above are therefore approxi¬ 
mate. 

One hundred yards of plastering will require 1,400 laths, 4 % 
bus. lime, four-fifths of a load of sand, 9 lbs. hair, and 6 lbs. nails, 
for two-coat work. 

Three men and one helper will put on 450 yards, in a day’s 
work, of two-coat work, and will put on a hard finish for 300 
yards. 

A bushel of hair weighs, when dry, about 15 lbs. 

Putty, for Plastering, is a very fine cement made of lime 

only. It is thus prepared; Dissolve in a small quantity of water, as two or three 
gallons, an equal quantity of fresh lime, constantly stirring it with a stick until the 
lime be entirely slacked, and the whole becomes of a suitable consistency, so that 
when the stick is taken out of it, it will but just drop therefrom; this, being sifted or 
run through a hair sieve, to take out the gross parts of the lime, is fit for use. Putty 
differs from fine stuff in the manner of preparing it, and its being used without 
hair. 362 


ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS 


To Find the Number of Bricks Required in ^Building 

—Rule—Multiply the number of cubic feet by 22%. The number of cubic feet is 
found by multiplying the length, height and thickness (in feet) together. Bricks are 
usually made 8 inches long, 4 inches wide and 2 inches thick; hence it requires 27 
bricks to make a cubic foot without mortar, but it is generally assumed that the 
mortar fills 1-6 of the space. 

Estimates of Materials.— 3 % barrels of lime will do 100 

square yards plastering, two coats. 

2 barrels of lime will do too square yards plastering, one coat. 

bushels of hair will do ioo square yards plastering. 
i% yards good sand will do ioo square yards plastering. 

barrel of plaster (stucco) will hard-finish too square yards plastering. 

1 barrel of lime will lay 1,000 bricks. (It takes good lime to do it.) 

2 barrels of lime will lay i cord rubble stone. 

Yi barrel of lime will lay x perch rubble stone (estimating % cord to perch). 

To every barrel of lime estimate about yards of good sand for plastering and 
brick work. 

Mason Work—Brick.— barrels lime and % yard sand 

will lay 1,000 brick. 

One man with i)£ tenders will lay 1,800 to 2,000 brick per day. 

Rubble.— ij^ barrels lime and 1 yard of sand will lay 100 feet 

of stone. 

One man will lay 150 feet of stone per day with one tender. 

Cement.— 1^ barrels cement and % yard sand will lay 100 
feet rubble stone. Same time as to mason and tender as rubble. 

Floor, Wall and Roof Measure.— To find the number of 

square yards in a floor or wall: Rule—Multiply the length by the width or height 
(in feet) and divide the product by 9; the result will be square yards. 


Big Salaries.— There are a score of men in New York who 

are paid as much for their services each year as the President of the United States. 
Forty thousand dollars a year is a very tidy salary. There are hundreds of men who 
get $25,000 a year salary, and the number who get from $10,000 to $20,000 are legion. 
Very ordinary men get from $5,000 to $8,000 a year, or as much as a Cabinet officer. 
Dr. Norvin Green, president of the Western Union Telegraph Company, is paid $50,- 
000. So is Chauncey M. Depew, president of the New York Central Railroad. 
Richard M. McCurdy, president of the Mutual Life Insurance Company, gets a like 
amount. John Hoey, president of Adams Express Company, fares equally as well. 
President Henry B. Hyde, of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, is also on the 
list. George G. Williams, president of the Chemical National Bank, the richest 
banking institution in America, with nearly $5,000,000 of surplus, $20,000,000 average 
deposits, is paid a salary of $25,000 yearly. President Potts of the Paris Bank and 
President Tappan of the Gallatin National Bank receive a like sum each twelve 
months. The best paid minister in New York is Dr. John Hall, a brainy man from 
the north of Ireland, who preaches to $20,000,000 every Sunday. His is the smallest 
church in town. He owes his rise in life to Robert Bonner of the Ledger, who 
found him preaching to a small delegation in Dublin, and induced him to come to 
America. He gets a salary of $20,000 a year and makes $5,000 by his newspaper 
and magazine articles. He is given a luxuriously furnished house as well. Dr. 
Morgan Dix, the chief pastor of Trinity Church corporation, the wealthiest in Amer¬ 
ica, receives $15,000 yearly. Dr. William L. Taylor, of the Broadway Tabernacle, 
gets the same amount He does literarv work and lecturing that brings his income 
up to $20,000. Dr Charles Hall, of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, is paid 
$15,000. He is very eloquent, and his church is crowded at all services. Dr. Park- 
hurst, of Madison Square Church, gets $12,000. He has a large and distinguished 
congregation. Cyrus W. Field is one of the pillars of the church. Dr. Paxton, who 
preaches to Jay Gould and others less wealthy, is paid $15,000. The Rev. Robert 
Collyer, the blacksmith preacher, is paid $10,000. 

363 







BUILDERS’ ESTIMATING TABLES. 

Quantity of material in every four lineal feet of exterior wall in a balloon frame 
building, height of wall being given : 


Length of 
Studs. 

Size of Sills. 

Size of Studs, Braces, 
etc. 

Quantity 

of Rough 

Lumber. 

Quantity of 

Inch 

Boarding. 

Siding in 

sup. feet. 

Tar Paper 

in sup. feet. 

8 

6x 6 

2x4 Studs 

42 

36 

40 

74 

10 

6x 8 

4x4 Braces 

52 

44 

50 

80 

12 

6x10 

4x4 Plates 

62 

53 

60 

96 

14 

6x10 

1x6 Ribbons 

69 

62 

70 

112 

16 

8x10 


82 

71 

80 

128 

18 

8x10 

Studs 

87 

80 

90 

144 

20 

8x12 

16 inches from 

98 

88 

100 

160 

22 

9x12 

centers 

109 

97 

110 

176 

24 

10x12 


119 

106 

120 

192 

18 

10x10 

2x6 Studs 

122 

80 

90 

144 

20 

10x12 

6x6 Braces 

137 

88 

100 

160 

22 

10x12 

4x6 Plates 

145 

97 

110 

176 

24 

12x12 

1x6 Ribbons 

162 

-106 

120 

192 

26 

10x14 


169 

114 

130 

208 

28 

10x14 

Studs 16 inch centers 

176 

123 

140 

224 

30 

12x14 


198 

132 

150 

240 


Amount of lumber in rafters, collar-piece and boarding, and number of shingles to 
four lineal feet of roof, measured from eave to eave over ridge. 

Rafters 16-inch centers: 


Width of 
House, 
Feet. 

Size of 
Rafters. 

Size 

of Collar- 
piece.* 

Quantity of Lumber in 
Rafter and Col¬ 
lar-piece. 

Quantity of 
Boarding, 
Feet. 

No. of 
Shingles. 

14 

2x4 

2x4 

39 

91 

560 

16 

2x4 

2x4 

45 

70 

640 

18 

2x4 

2x4 

50 

79 

720 

20 

2x4 

2x4 

56 

88 

800 

22 

2x4 

2x4 

62 

97 

880 

24 

2x4 

2x4 

67 

106 

960 

20 

2x6 

2x6 

84 

88 

800 

22 

2x6 

2x6 

92 

97 

880 

24 

2x6 

2x6 

101 

106 

960 

26 

2x6 

2x6 

109 

115 

1040 

28 

2x6 

2x6 

117 

124 

1120 

30 

2x6 

2x6 

126 

133 

1200 


Comparative Strength of Timber and Cast Iron. 

Table showing the transverse strength of timber and of cast iron one 
loot long and one inch square. 


MATERIAL. 

Breaking 
Weight, lbs. 

Weight Borne 
with Safety, lbs. 

Ash, seasoned. 


IfiK 

Chestnut, seasoned. 

I/O 

170 

270 

240 

135 

150 

5,781 

1UD 

115 

onn 

Hickorv. seasoned. 

White Oak, seasoned. 

1 (\a 

White Pine, seasoned. 

liT0 

QC 

Yellow Pine, seasoned. 

JO 

100 

4,000 

Iron (cast). 



3G4 

















































HOW TO USE CEMENT 


The following general rules referring to the practical use of 
cement will be found convenient for reference: 

Quality of Sand —The sand should be clean, sharp and coarse. When the sand 
is mixed with loam the mortar will set comparatively slow, and the work will be 
comparatively weak. Fine sand, and especially water-worn sand, delays the set¬ 
ting of the cement, and deteriorates strength. Damp sand should not be mixed 
with dry cement, but the cement and sand should be mixed thoroughly and uni¬ 
formly together, when both are dry, and no water should be applied Until imme¬ 
diately before the mortar is wanted for use. 

Proportion of Sand —The larger the proportion of cement the stronger the 
work. One part of good cement to two parts sand is allowable for ordinary work; 
but for cisterns, cellars, and work requiring special care, half and half is the better 
proportion. For floors, the cement should be increased toward the surface. 

Water in Concrete —Use no more water in cement than absolutely necessary. 
Cement requires but a very small quantity of water in crystalizing. Merely damp¬ 
ening the material gives the best results. Any water in excess necessarily evapor¬ 
ates and leaves the hardened cement comparatively weak and porous. 

Concrete in Water —Whenever concrete is used under water, care must be 
taken that the water is still. So say all English and American authorities. In lay¬ 
ing cellar floors, or constructing cisterns or similar work, care must also be taken to 
avoid pressure of exterior water. Cement will not crystalize when disturbed by 
the force of currents, or pressure of water, but will resist currents and pressure after 
hardening only. In still water, good cement will harden quicker than in air, and 
when kept in water will be stronger than when kept in air. Cements which harden 
especially quick in air are usually slow or worthless in water. 

How to Put Down Concrete —When strong work is wanted, for cellar floors 
and all similar work, the concrete should be dampened and tamped down to place, 
with the back of a spade, or better, with the end of a plank or rammer; then finished 
off with a trowel, thus leveling and compacting the work. Only persons ignor¬ 
ant of the business will lay a floor or walk with soft cement mortar. All artificial 
stone is made in a similar way to that described, and, when set, is strong and hard 
as stone. 

Delay in Use —Do not permit the mortar to exhaust its setting properties by de- 
layingits use when ready. Inferior cements only will remain standing in the mortar- 
bed any length of time without serious injury. 

Stone and Brick Work—In buildings constructed of stone or brick, the best 
protection from dampness and decay, and also from the danger of cyclones, is a 
mortar of cement and coarse sand. The extra cost is inconsiderable, and the in¬ 
creased value of the structure very great. Chimneys laid in this manner never blow 
down, and cellars whose foundations are thus laid are always free from atmospheric 
moisture. Cement may also be mixed with lime mortar for plastering and other 
purposes, to great advantage. 

Effect of Frost and Cold—At a temperature less than 60 degrees Fahrenheit, 
all good cement sets slowly, thoug-h surely, but if allowed to freeze its value is seri¬ 
ously impaired. In cold weather or cold water do not fear to wait for your concrete 
to crystalize. . .... ... , ,, 

Damage from Moisture— Good cement is not injured by age, if carefully pre¬ 

served from moisture. Lumps in bags or barrels of cement are caused by exposure 
to moisture. They prove the originally good quality of the cement. 


The Ramphorhyncus, the remains of which have been found 
in the quarries of Solenhofen, Germany, was a curious intermediate link between 
birds and reptiles. Its tail, a singular appendage, was long, reptile-like, and 
dragged upon the ground, while its footprints were bird-like. 

John Verrazanni, an eminent Florentine navigator, in 
1524 , landed where the lower extremity of New York City is, and giving the 
natives some spirituous liquors made many of them drunk. I he Indians called the 
place Manna-ha-ta, or “place of drunkenness,” and they were afterwards called 
Manna-ha-tans. 


305 




USEFUL TABLES FOR PLUMBERS, ETC 


SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF LEAD PIPE. 


Weight 
per foot. 

LBS. 

oz. 


134 


3 


4 


6 


15 


8 


9 


12 

1 


1 

8 

2 



10 


12 

1 


1 

4 

1 

12 

2 


2 

8 

3 



12 

1 

4 

1 

12 

2 


2 

8 

3 


3 

8 

1 


1 

8 

2 


2 

4 

3 


3 

8 

4 


1 

8 

2 


2 

8 

3 


3 

8 

1 

8 

2 


2 

8 

3 

4 

4 


4 

12 

5 

8 

2 


2 

8 

3 


3 

12 


CALIBRE. 


inch 
34 inch 

A j nch 

34 inch 
% inch 


34 inch 


% inch 


% inch 


% inch 


1 inch 


134 inch 


Tubing. 

Tubing.... 

Tubing. 

Tubing. 

Fish Seine .... 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light . 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light . 

Medium. 

Strong. 

AA.. 

Ex. Strong .... 
Ex. Ex. Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light . 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

'Ex. Ex. Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium . 


CALIBRE. 


Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

1J4 inch Aqueduct. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

1% inch ^ x * Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

2 inch Waste. 

Ex. Light. 

Light. 

Medium. 

Strong. 

Ex. Strong. 

Ex. Ex. Strong. 

234 i nc h Waste. 

Light. 

• 3 ^ 5 - thick. 

3 £ thick. 

thick. 

% thick. 

3 inch Waste. 

Waste . 

Light. 

thick. 

34 thick. 

thick. 

% thick. 

334 inch Waste. 

34 thick. 

thick. 

4 inch Waste. 

Waste. 

W aste. 

Waste. 

34 thick. 

thick. 

£ thick. 


434 inch Waste 

5 inch Waste. 

6 inch Waste. 


Weight 
per foot. 


4 

6 

6 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

9 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

3 

4 

5 

7 

8 
9 

10 

4 

6 
8 

11 

14 

17 
3 
3 

5 

9 
12 
16 
20 

5 

15 

18 

5 

6 
8 

10 

16 
21 
25 

6 

8 

10 


12 

12 


12 

8 

8 

8 


12 


Seest thou a man diligent in his business ? He shall stand 

before kings; he shall not stand before mean men.—O ld Testament. 

36 G 

















































































































SIZES AND WEIGHTS OF PURE BLOCK TIN PIPE. 


3-16 

in. 



% in. 





and 6 oz. 

1 

.12 “ “ 16 “ 

5-16 


.5 “ 

“ 8 “ 

134 “. 


% 



“ 6 •* 

134 “ . 

.134 “ “ 2 “ 

34 

% 

t 

.6 “ 

.9 “ 

“ 8 “ 

“ 12 “ 

2 

.2 “ “ 3 “ 


WEIGHT PER SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET LEAD. 


1-32 in. 

thick . 

.2 lbs. 

1-10 in. thick _ 



. 7 

tbs 

3-64 “ 

i i 


34 “ “ ... 



.8 

i% 

1-25 “ 

it 

. 3 “ 

5-32 “ “ ... 



....10 

a 

1-16 “ 

it 

. 4 “ 

3-16 “ “ ... 



....12 

i i 

1-14 “ 

ti 

.5 “ 

7-32 “ “ ... 



.14 

a 

1-12 “ 

ti 


34 “ “ ... 



.. .16 

a 

WEIGHT PER JOINT OF LEAD AND GASKET FOR STREET MAINS. 


Lead. Gasket. 


Lead. 

Gasket. 

2 -inbh Pipe, 3.25 

lbs., 0.050 lbs. 

10-inch Pipe, 

15 lbs., 

0.30 

lbs 

3-inch 

“ 4.72 

“ 0.075 “ 

12 -inch “ 

20 

U 

0.35 

ii 

4-inch 

“ 6. 

“ 0.115 “ 

16-inch “ 

25 

u 

0.45 

U 

6 -inch 

“ 9. 

“ 0.175 “ 

18-inch “ 

29 

u 

0.52 

U 

8 inch 

“ 12. 

“ 0.250 “ 

20 -inch “ 

43 

(4 

0.60 

u 


CAPACITY OF DRAIN-PIPE. 


Gallons Per Minute. 




^ % 


4 -* 

—• V 

4 -* 

—« <D 

_4 4-t 

4-t 

4-4 

<D 

a D 

fa 

. 0 

Size of 

rt u 

fa 

. O 

a & 

* 0 

« £ 

0 

^_ 0 

(k ■" 

. O 

a <u 

fa ^ 

. 0 

rt v 
fa 

. O 

Pipe. 

.5 S 

.s S 

£ S 

£ tH 

.b h 

.5 S 

t-H 

.S 3 

^ V 

CU 

ob 

0 . 

<£> S 
p. 

05 S3 
p. 

<ni 

^ s. 

«S S3 

- 

N S. 

0 J 5 

s. 

3-inch. 

21 

30 

42 

52 

60 

74 

85 

104 

4 

U 

36 

52 

76 

92 

108 

132 

148 

184 

6 

« 

84 

120 

169 

206 

240 

294 

338 

414 

9 

U 

232 

330 

470 

570 

660 

810 

930 

1140 

12 

(4 

470 

680 

960 

1160 

1360 

1670 

1920 

2350 

15 

44 

830 

1180 

1680 

2040 

2370 

2920 

3340 

4100 

18 

44 

1300 

1850 

2630 

3200 

3740 

4600 

5270 

6470 

20 

44 

1760 

2450 

3450 

4180 

4860 

5980 

6850 

8410 


The maximum rainfall is about one inch per hour (except during very heavy 
storms)—equal to 22,633 gallons an hour for each acre, or 377 gallons a minute per 
acre. >■ 


Avoid shame, but do not seek glory—nothing so expensive as 
glory.— Sidney Smith. 

That this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of free¬ 
dom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the 
people, shall not perish from the earth.— Abraham Lin¬ 
coln. 


367 


























































HINTS FOR RO OFERS. 

The average width of a shingle is four inches. Hence, when 
shingles are laid four in. to the weather each shingle averages -16 
sq. in., and 900 are required for a square of roofing (100 sq. ft). 
If 4 % in. to the weather, 800 ; 5 in., 720 ; 5 % in., 655 ; 6 in., 600 . 
In hip-roofs, where the shingles are cut more or less to fit the 
roof, 5 % should be added to these figures. % 

One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather will re¬ 
quire five pounds of shingle nails. Six pounds of 4 d nails will 
lay 1000 split pine shingles. 

A carpenter will carry up and lay on the roof from 1,500 to 
2,000 shingles per day, or two squares to two squares and a half 
of plain gable-roofing. 

The pitch of a slated roof should be about one in height to 
four in length. The usual lap is about 3 in., sometimes 4 in. 
Each slate should be fastened by two 3 d slate nails, either of 
galvanized iron, copper or zinc. On roofs of gas-houses the nails 
should be of copper or yellow metal. 

The sides and bottom edges of roof slates should be trimmed, 
and the nail-holes punched as near the head as possible. When 
slates are not of uniform size they should be sorted, and the 
smallest placed near the ridge. 

In a first-class slate roof the top course on ridge, and the slate 
from two to four feet from gutters, and one foot each way from 
valleys and hips, should be bedded in elastic cement. 

Roof-boards for slate roofs should be covered with one or two 
thicknesses of tarred felt roofing paper before slates are laid. Dry or rosin-sized felt 
should not be used on roofs. 

Xnmljer of Slates per Square. 


Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

Size in 
Inches. 

Slates per 
Square. 

6x12 

533 

8x16 

277 

12x20 

141 

7x12 

457 

9 x 16 

246 

14x20 

121 

8x12 

400 

10x16 

221 

11x22 

137 

9x12 

355 

9x18 

213 

12x22 

126 

7x14 

374 

10 x 18 

192 

14x22 

108 

8x 14 

327 

12x18 

160 

12x24 

114 

9x14 

291 

10x20 

169 

14x24 

98 

10 x 14 

261 

11 x20 

154 

16x24 

86 


Number off Shingles Required in a Roof. 

To the square foot, it takes 9 if exposed 4 inches; exposed 

4 % inches, and 7 1-5 if exposed 5 inches to the weather. 

Find the number of shingles required to cover a roof 38 ft. long 
and the rafters on each side 14 ft. Shingles exposed 4% inches. 

28X38=1064 (sq. ft.) X8=8512 shingles. Ans. 
To find the length of rafters, giving the roof one-third pitch, 
take three-fifths of the width of the building. If the building is 30 feet wide, they 
must be 18 feet long, exclusive of projection. 

A tin roof, properly put on, and kept painted, will last thirty 

368 



















HINTS FOR ROOFERS. 


years. It ought not to be painted for the first time until it has 
been on about thirty days, so as to get the grease off the tin, and 
all the rosin should be carefully scraped off. 

It is sometimes necessary, on buildings where there is much 
dampness or steam, as stables, blacksmith shops, round-houses, 
etc., to paint the roof tin one coat on the under side before 
laying. 

Tin roofs should be laid with cleats, and not by driving the 
'nails through the tin itself. 

There are two kinds of tin—“bright tin,” the coating of which 
is all tin, that is, the tin proper; and “tern,” “leaded,” or “roof¬ 
ing” tin, the coating of which is a composition, part tin and part 
lead. This last is a little cheaper, and will not rust any quicker, 
but the sulphur in soft coal smoke eats through the “leaded” coat¬ 
ing sooner than through the “tinned.” 

There are two sizes of tin, 10x14 and 14x20, and two grades of 
thickness—IC light, and IX, heavy. For a steep roof (one-sixth 
pitch or over) the IC 14x20 tin (“leaded” if high up where little 
smoke will get to it; “bright” if low down), put on with a stand¬ 
ing groove, and with the cross-beams put together with a double 
lock, makes as good a roof as can be made. For flat roofs IX 
10x14 “light” is best, laid with cleats, but the others make good 
roofs and any of them will last 25 years at least. 

Number of Square Feet a Box of Roofing Tin Will 
Cover. —For flat seam roofing, using %-inch locks, a box of 
“14x20” size will cover about 192 square feet, and for standing 
seam, using ^-inch locks and turning 1% and 1% inches edges, 
making i-inch standing seams, it will lav about 168 square feet. 

For flat seam roofing, using }^-inch locks, a box of “28x20” 
size will cover about 399 square feet, and for standing seam, 
using %-inch locks and turning 1^ and 1% inches edges, making 
1-inch standing seams, it will lay about 365 square feet. 

Every box of roofing plates (IC or IX “14x20” or “28x20” 
sizes) contains 112 sheets. 

Facts About Gas. 

A cubic foot of good gas, from a jet one thirty-third of an inch 
jin diameter and a flame of four inches, will burn 65 minutes, 
l’ Internal lights require four cubic feet, and external lights 
about five cubic feet, per hour. Large or Argand burners will 
require from six to ten feet. 

In distilling 56 pounds of coal, the volume of gas produced in 
jcubic feet, when the distillation was effected in three hours, was 
41.3; in seven hours, 37.5; in twenty hours, 33.5; in twenty-five 
jhours, 31.7. 

A retort produces about 600 cubic feet of gas in five hours, 
with a charge of about one and a half cwt. of coal, or 2,800 cubic 
feet in twenty-four hours. [ 369 ] 



PAINTING AND GLAZING. 

Painters’ work is generally estimated by the square yard, arid 
the cost depends on the number of coats applied, quality of work 
and material to be painted. 

One coat, or f riming, will take, per ioo yards of painting 1 , 20 
pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 40 pounds 
of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Three-coat, the same quantity as 
two-coat; so that a fair estimate for 100 yards of three-coat work 
would be 100 pounds of lead and 16 gallons of oil. 

One gallon priming color will cover 50 superficial yards; white 
Zinc, 50 yds.; white paint, 44 yds.; lead color, 50 yds.; black paint, 
56 ydsq "stone colofj 44 yds.; yellotv paint, 44 yds.; blue color, 45 
yds.; green paint, 45 yds.; bright emerald green, 25 yds.; bronze 
green, 75 yds. 

One pound of paint will cover about 4 superficial yards the 
first coatj and about 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty, 
for stopping* every 20 yardSi One gallon of tar and 1 lb. of pitch 
will cover i2 yards superficial the first coat, and 17yards each 
additional coat. A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the 
first coat of paint in oil, % lb.; for the second, 3 lbs.; for the 
third, 4 lbs. 

A day’s work on the outside of a building is 100 yards of first 
coat, and 80 yds. of either second or third coat. An ordinary 
door, including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 yds. of 
painting, or about 5 yds. to a door without the casings. An or¬ 
dinary window makes about 2^ or 3 yds. 

Window Glass is sold by the box, which contains, as nearly 
as possible, 50 sq. ft., whatever the size of the panes. The thick¬ 
ness of ordinary, or “single thick” window glass is about one- 
sixteenth of an inch, and of “double thick” nearly % in. The 
tensile strength of common glass varies from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs. 
per sq. in., and its crushing strength from 6,000 to 10,000 lbs. 

Where Skylights are glazed with clear or double thick glass, 
it may be used in lengths of from 16 to 30 in. by a width of from 
9 to 15 in. A lap of at least an inch and a half is necessary for 1 
all joints. This is the cheapest mode of glazing. The best,] 
however, for skylight purposes is fluted or rough plate glass.; 
The following thicknesses are recommended as proportionate to I 
sizes: 12x48, 3-16 in.; 15x60, 3^ in.; 20x100, % in.; 94x156, 34 in 

Polished French plate window glass, which is the 
highest grade of window glass in the market, may be obtained! 
in lights ranging in size from one inch square upwards. Owing: 
to the extra cost of rolling large lights the price of these per 
square foot is sometimes double that of smaller lights. 

Faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence oil 
things unseen.—N ew Testament. 

.370 




PANES OF WINDOW GLASS IN A BOX OF 50 FEET. 


Size, 

n inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

Size, 

in inches. 

Panes 

in 

box. 

6x8 

150 

12x19 

32 

16x20 

23 

24x44 

7 

7 x 9 

115 

12x20 

30 

16x22 

20 

24x50 

6 

8 x 10 

90 

12x21 

29 

16x24 

19 

24 x 56 

5 

8 x 11 

82 

12 x 22 

27 

16 x 30 

15 

26x36 

8 

8x12 

75 

12 x 23 

26 

16x36 

12 

26x40 

7 

9 x 10 

80 

12x24 

25 

16 x 40 

11 

26x48 

6 

9 x 11 

72 

13x14 

40 

18x20 

20 

26 x 54 

5 

9x12 

67 

13 x 15 

37 

18x22 

18 

28x34 

8 

9x13 

62 

13x16 

35 

18 x24 

17 

28x40 

6 

9x14 

57 

13x17 

33 

18x26 

15 

28x46 

6 

9x15 

53 

13x18 

31 

18x34 

12 

28 x 50 

5 

9x16 

50 

13x19 

29 

18x36 

11 

30x40 

6 

10x10 

72 

13 x 20 

28 

18x40 

10 

30x44 

4 

10x12 

60 

13 x 21 

26 

18x44 

9 

30x48 

5 

10x13 

55 

13 x 22 

25 

20x22 

16 

30x54 

5 

10x14 

52 

13x24 

23 

20x24 

15 

32x42 

5 

10x15 

48 

14 x 15 

34 

20x25 

14 

32 x 44 

5 

10 x 16 

45 

14 x 16 

32 

20x26 

14 

32x46 

5 

10x17 

42 

14x18 

29 

20x28 

13 

32x48 

5 

10x18 

40 

14x19 

27 

20 x 30 

12 

32x50 

4 

11 xll 

59 

14x20 

26 

20 x 34 

11 

32x54 

4 

11 xl2 

55 

14 x 22 

23 

20 x 36 

10 

32 x 56 

4 

11x13 

50 

14x24 

22 

20 x 40 

9 

32x60 

4 

11x14 

47 

14x28 

18 

20 x 44 

8 

34x40 

5 

11x15 

44 

14x32 

16 

20 x 50 

7 

34x44 

5 

11x16 

41 

14x36 

14 

22 x 24 

14 

34x46 

5 

11x17 

39 

14x40 

13 

22 x 26 

13 

34 x 50 

4 

11x18 

36 

15x16 

30 

22 x 28 

12 

34x52 

4 

12x12 

50 

15x18 

27 

22 x 36 

9 

34x56 

4 

12x13 

46 

15x20 

24 

22x40 

8 

36x44 

5 

12x14 

43 

15x22 

-22 

22 x 50 

7 

36 x 50 

4 

12 x 15 

40 

15x24 

20 

24x28 

11 

36 x 56 

4 

12x16 

38 

15x30 

16 

24x30 

10 

36x60 

3 

12x17 

35 

15x32 

15 

24 x 32 

9 

36x64 

3 

12x18 

33 

16x18 

25 

24x36 

8 

40x60 

3 


CARPENTERS’ WORK AND MEASURING. 


What is called Naked Flooring in carpentry are the joists 
hich support the flooring boards and ceiling of a room. There 
re different kinds, but they may all be comprised in the three 
fllowing— viz.: single joisted floors, double floors, and framed 
oors. 

A single joisted floor consists of only one series of joists; 
Dmetimes every third or fourth joist is made deeper,with ceiling 
>ists nailed across at right angles. This is a good method, as 
silings stand better than when the laths are nailed to the joists 
lone. 

A double floor consists of binding, bridging, and ceiling joists; 
le binding joists are the chief support of the floor, and the 
ridging joists are nailed upon the upper side of them; the ceiling 
ffsts are either notched to the under side or framed between 

371 

























CARPENTERS * WORN AND MEASURING. 


with chased mortises. The best method is to notch them 

Framed floors differ from double floors only in having the 
binding joists framed into large pieces of timber called 
girders. 

Single joisted floors, when the bearing exceeds ten feet, shoulc. 
be cross-bridged between the joists to prevent them from turning 
or twisting sideways, and also to stiffen the floor; when thd 
bearing exceeds fifteen feet, two rows will be necessary, and sci 
on, adding another row for each five feet bearing. 

Single joisting may be used to any extent for^which timber 
can be got deep enough; but where it is desirable to have a per 
feet ceiling, the bearing should not exceed 18 ft., nor the distance 
from center to center be more than 16 inches; otherwise th<; 
bearing for the laths become too long to produce good work. 

To find the depth of a joist, the length of bearing and the thick 
ness being given— 

Rule. —Divide the square of the length in feet by the thick 
ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied bj 

2.2 for pine, or 2.3 for oak, will be the depth in inches. 

Example .—Suppose a joist whose bearing is 10 feet, and th<| 

thickness two inches, what will be the depth? 

Here 10X10=100, divided by 2, the thickness=50, the cubt 
root of which is 3,684X2.2=8.i048=equals 8 inches, the depth, , 

To find the scantlings of joists for different bearings from \ 
to 20 feet, at several thicknesses, refer to the table on following 
page. 

Girders are the chief support of a framed floor, and then! 
depth is often limited by the size of the timber; therefore tht 
method of finding the scantling may be divided in twe 
cases— 

Cask i. —To find the depth of a girder when the lengtl 
of bearing and thickness of girder are given. 

Rule .—Divide the square of the length in feet bv the thick 1 
ness in inches, and the cube root of the quotient, multiplied bj 

4.2 for pine, or 4.34 for oak, will give the depth required ir 
inches. 

Case 2.—To find the thickness when the length of bearing 
and depth are given. 

Rule. Divide the square of the length in feet by the cube o 
the depth in inches, and the quotient multiplied by 74 for pine 
or by 82 for oak, will give the thickness in inches. 

In these rules the girders are supposed to be ten feet apart 
and this distance should never be exceeded, but should the dis 
tance apart be more or less than 10 feet, the thickness should b< 
made proportionate thereto. 


372 


CARPENTERS' WORK AND MEASURING. 


3.5 

3 

§ S* 

4.0 

Thickness 

2 inches. 

Thickness 

2)4 inches. 

Thickness 

3 inches. 

Thickness 

3 % inches. 

Thickness 

4 inches. 


B 

c 

c 

.S 

a 


in 

•£ £ 

4 1 

CO 

■5 jj 

p, (j 

i 1 

* </? 
•5 


v c 

P - 

P <S 

V c 

Q ^ 

P “ 

CL <-> 

V c 

p - 

5 

5% 


r*-. 


4 

6 

5% 

5% 

4% 

4)4 

7 

6)4 

6 

5/4 

5% 

5 

8 

7 

6)4 

6% 

5% 

5% 

9 

7)4 

6% 

6% 

6 

5 % 

10 

8 

7 )4 

7 

6% 

6)4 

11 

8% 

8 

7 % 

7 

6% 

12 

9 % 

8/4 

8 

7)4 

7% 

13 

% 

9 

8% 

8 

7% 

14 

10 

*9% 

9 

8% 

3 

15 

10* 

9 % 

9 % 

8% 

8% 

16 

11 

10 % 

9 % . 

9 % 

8% 

17 

11% 

10 % 

10 % 

9 % 

9 % 

18 

12 

ii % 

io>4 

10 

9 % 

19 

12 % 

U /4 

io% 

10 % 

10 

20 

13 

12 

n% 

10 % 

10 % 


When the breadth of girders is considerable it is an excellent 
method to saw them down the middle and bolt them together, 
with the sawn sides outward. 

Partitions unsupported from underneath the floors should' be 
supported from the walls by means of a simple truss. This can 
be made by setting two pieces of scantling into the walls on 
either side at the floor to abut against each other at the ceiling 
or against a collar-beam over the doors. This plan will obviate 
the sinking of floors so often seen under partitions. 


Weight of Lumber, Etc., Dry. 

Flooring —Dressed and matched, per 1,000 ft 

Siding —Dressed per 1,000 ft. 

Ceiling — % inch thick, per 1,000 ft.. 

u 1/ t< tc << <t 

72 . 

Boards —Dressed one side, per 1,000 ft. 

“ and dimensions, rough, per 1,000 ft,. 

Shingles —per 1,000 . 

Lath —per 1,000 pieces . 

Pickets —Dressed, per 1,000 pieces.. 

“ Rough, per 1,000 pieces. 

373 


1,800 lbs 
800 “ 
800 “ 
900 “ 
2,100 “ 
2,500 “ 
250 “ 
500 “ 
1,800 “ 
2,500 “ 


























WEAR AND TEAR OF BUILDING MATERIALS. 

The figures given below are averages deduced from replies 
made by eighty-three competent builders in twenty-seven cities 
and towns of Western States: 


Material in 

Buildings. 

Frame 

Dwellings. 

Brick 
Dwellings. 
(Shingle roof) 

Frame 

Stores. 

Brick Stores. 
(Shingle roof) 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 
ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum. 

Average Life, years. 

Percentage of Depre¬ 

ciation per Annum, 

Brick. 



75 

IK 



66 

IK 

Plastering. 

20 

5 

30 

3 K 

16 

6 

30 

3K 

Painting, outside.. . . 

5 

20 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Painting, inside. 

7 

14 

7 

14 

5 

20 

6 

16 

Shingles. 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

Cornice. 

40 

2K 

40 

2K 

30 

3K 

40 

2K 

Weather-boarding . . 

30 

3K 



30 

3K 



Sheathing*. 

50 

2 

50 

2 

40 

2K 

50 

*2. 

Flooring. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Doors, complete. . . 

30 

3 K 

30 

3K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Windows, complete. 

30 

3K 

30 

3 K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Stairs and newel.... 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Base. 

40 

2X 

40 

2K 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

Inside blinds. 

30 

3K 

30 

3 K 

30 

3K 

30 

3K 

Building hardware. . 

20 

5 

20 

5 

13 

8 

13 

8 

Piazzas and porches. 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

20 

5 

Outside blinds . . 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

16 

6 

Sills and first floor 









joints. 

25 

4 

40 

2K 

25 

4 

30 

3K 

Dimension lumber. . 

50 

2 

75 

iK 

40 

2K 

66 

IK 


In Java the “Valley of the Upas Tree” is sometimes called 
the “Valley of Death,” and its deadly influence was formerly 
ascribed to the malignant properties of a peculiar vegetable pro¬ 
duction of the island, called the “upas tree,” which especiallv 
flourishes in this locality. Recent travelers, however, declare 
that accounts of the fatality attending a passage of this famous 
valley have been greatly exaggerated. 

A man may fish with the worm that hath eat of a king, and 
eat of the fish that hath fed of that worm.— Shakespeare. 

374 



































Sizes of Chairs and Desks for Schools. 

Desks for Single Scholar, 2 ft. long ; For Two Scholars, 3 ft. 10 irt» 


Age of Scholar. 

Height of Cham 

Height of Desk 
(next scholar). 

Space Occupied by 
Desk and Chair. 

16 to 18 vears. 

16 % inches. 

29 % inches. 

2 

feet 9 inches. 

14 to 16 

44 

15 % “ 

28 

2 

44 

9 

44 

12 to 14 

44 

15 % “ 

27 % “ 

2 

44 

8 

44 

i 10 to 12 

a 

14 % “ 

26 % “ 

2 

a 

7 

44 

8 to 10 

u 

13 % “ 

25 % “ 

2 

u 

5 

41 

7 to 8 

it 

12% “ 

24 

2 

u 

4 

44 

6 to 7 

u 

11% “ 

22% “ 

2 

u 

3 

44 

! 5 to 6 

u 

10% “ 

21 

2 

44 

2 

44 

4 to 5 

u 

9 % “ 

19 

2 

it 

0 

44 


WEIGHT OF FLOORS, AND THE LOAD UPON SAME. 

The dead weight of a fire-proof floor will average for th£ 
arches, concrete, plastering and flooring, 70 lbs. per sq. foot. Th 6 
I live weight, equal to a dense crowd of people, 80 lbs. per sq. 
j foot, or a total for an office building of 150 lbs. per sq. foot. 

The following loads are exclusive of weight of arches and 
beams: 

; Dense crowd of people . 80 lbs. per sq. foot 

For floors of houses. 50 “ “ “ “ 

Theaters and churches . 80 “ “ “ “ 

Ball rooms. 90 “ “ “ “ 

Ware houses.250 “ “ “ “ 

Factories.200 to 450 “ “ “ “ 

f Snow 30 inches deep. 15 “ 

Brick walls.112 “ “ cubic “ 

Stone (Chicago lime stone, dressed).160 “ “ “ “ 

The dead weight of a wooden floor, including wood joists: 
Double flooring and plastering will average .25 lbs. per sq. foot 

If deafened...35 “ “ “ “ 

Stud partition of wood plastered each side. . .20 “ “ “ “ 

In estimating the weight of a flat ceiling and roof it will be 
safe to assume the following: 

Ceiling of wooden construction. 15 lbs per sq. foot. 

Ceiling of iron construction.25 to 65 “ 

Roof of wooden construction. 45 “ 

Roof of iron construction . 65 to 100 “ “ 

The weight of roof includes the wind pressure and snow. 
Strength of Piers.—G ranite will sustain 40 tons per sq. 
ft.; Berea (sand stone), 30 tons per sq. ft.; limestone (mag¬ 
nesium), 29 tons per sq. ft.; Portland (sand stone), 13 tons per sq. 
ft.; brick in cement, 3 tons per sq. ft.; rubble masonrv, 2 tons per 
sq. ft.; lime, cement foundation, 2 % tons per sq. ft. 

375 




























WEIGHT OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 

Weight of Stones. —Granite, (averages) per cubic foot, 170 
lbs.; limestone (magnesium). 144. lbs.; Berea (sand stone), 140 
lbs.; free stone, 140 lbs.; gypsum, natural state, 140 lbs. 

One ton of vein marble is 13 cubic feet; of statuary marble, 
1 3 / 4 'i granite, 13)^; of Berea stone, 14)^; of limestone, mag¬ 
nesium, 13%. 

Weight of Masonry. —Granite, per cubic foot, 160 lbs.; 
of Berea stone range, 140; of limestone rubble, 140; of brick, 
dry, 115; of brick, dry (press), 130; of brick, dry (fire), 150; of 
brick masonry in mortar, no; of brick masonry cement, 112. 

Weight of Marble Slabs. —One-half inch thick, per sq. 
foot, 7.17 lbs.; % inch thick, 10.75; 1 i nc h thick, 14.32; 1 % inch 
thick, 17.92; \% inch thick, 21.05; 1 % inch thick, 25.08; 2 inch 
thick, 28.67; 2)^ inch thick, 35.83. 

Cement and Lime. —One bushel of Portland cement weighs 
96 lbs.; of Rosendale, 70; of Louisville, 62; of quick lime well 
shaken, 80; of quick lime, loose, 70. 

Iron and Wood. —One cubic foot of wrought iron weighs 
480 lbs.; of cast iron, 450; of oak (seasoned), 48; of pine (sea¬ 
soned), 36. 

Coal. —One bushel of Anthracite weighs 86 lbs.; of Bitumin¬ 
ous, 80; of coke (Connellsvillej, 40; of charcoal (hardwood) 30. 

Miscellaneous Weights. —Per cubic foot: Ordinary quick 
lime, 53 lbs.; old mortar, 90; new mortar, well tempered, 115; 
new mortar, no; river sand (average), 107; river sand (screened), 
95; clay with gravel, 130; earth—vegetable, 90; earth—loamy, 
100; earth—semi fluid, no. 


San Marino, in Italy, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea, is the 
oldest Republic in the world. It is, next to Monaco, the smallest 
State in Europe. The exact date of the establishment of this 
Republic is not known, but according to tradition, it was in the 
fourth century, by Marinus, a Dalmatian hermit, and has ever 
since remained independent. It is mountainous, and contains 
four or five villages. The word “liberty” is inscribed on its 
capitol. 

Is life so dear, or peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the 
price of chains and slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know 
not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty 
or give me death!— Patrick Henry. 

The law is a sort of hocus-pocus science, that smiles in yer 
face while it picks yer pocket; and the glorious uncertainty of it 
is of mair use to the professors than the justice of it. — Macklin. 

Knowledge is of two kinds: we know a subject ourselves or 
we know where we can find information upon it.— Johnson. 

376 



Crushing and Tensile Strength, in Lbs., per Sq. Inch 
of Natural and Artificial Stones. 


DESCRIPTION. 

Weight 

„ p ? r 
Cubic ft. 

in lbs. 

Crushing Force. 
Lbs. per 
Square Inch. 

Aberdeen Blue Granite. 

164 

166 

S,400 to 10,914 
15,300 
3,522 
1,088 
3,319 

5,340 

17,000 

18,941 

12,624 

10,382 

3,216 

9,681 

9,300 

808 

562 

800 to 4,000 
6,222 to 14,216 
2,177 

521 

Quincy Granite. 

Freestone, Belleville. 

Freestone, Caen. 


Freestone, Connecticut. 


Sandstone, Acquia Creek, used for Capi¬ 
tol, Washington. 


Limestone, Magnesian, Grafton, Ill. . 


Marble, Hastings, N. Y. 


Marble, Italian. 


Marble, Stockbridge, City Hall, N. Y.. . 


Marble, Statuary. . . 


Marble, Veined. 

165 

Slate... 

Brick, Red. 

135.5 

Brick, Pale Red. 

130.3 

Brick, Common . 

Brick, Machine Pressed. 


Brick, Stock. 


Brick-work, set in Cement, bricks not very 
hard. 


Brick, Masonry, Common. 


500 to 800 

Cement, Portland. 


1,000 to 8,300 
1.280 

Cement, Portland, Cement 1, Sand 1.... 


Cement, Roman. 


342 

Mortar . 


120 to 240 

Crown Glass... 


31,000 

TENSION. 

427 to 711 

Portland Cement. 


Portland Cement, with Sand. 


92 to 284 

Glass, Plate. 


9,420 

50 

Mortar. 


Plaster of Paris. 


72 

Slate . 


11,000 


Error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free 
to combat it.— Thomas Jefferson. 

Virtue is like precious odors, most fragrant when they are 
incensed or crushed.— Lord Bacon. 

377 














































WEIGHT OF CAST IRON COLUMNS 
PER LINEAL FOOT OF PLAIN SHAFT. 




P 


3 

34 in, 

%in. 

34 in. 

A in 

H in - 

%in. 

2 

4.3 

6.0 

7.4 

8.4 

9.2 

9.7 

2 ^ 

5.5 

7.8 

9.8 

11.5 

12.9 

14.0 

3 

6.8 

9.7 

12.3 

14.6 

16.6 

18.3 

3^ 

8.0 

11.5 

14.7 

17.6 

20.3 

22.6 

4 

9.2 

13 3 

17.2 

20.7 

23.9 

26.8 

i l A 

10.4 

15.2 

19.6 

23.8 

27.6 

31.1 

5 

11.7 

17.0 

22.1 

26.9 

31.3 

35.4 

5'A 

12.9 

18.9 

24.5 

29.9 

35.0 

39.7 

6 

14.1 

20.7 

27.8 

33.0 

38.7 

44.0 

6'A 

15.3 

22.6 

29.5 

36.1 

42.3 

48.3 

7 

16.6 

24.4 

31.9 

39.1 

46.0 

52.6 

7A 

17.8 

26.2 

34.4 

42.2 

49.7 

56.9 

8 

19.0 

28.1 

36.8 

45.3 

53.4 

61.2 

8 l A 

20.2 

29.9 

39.3 

48.3 

57.1 

65.5 

9 

21.5 

31.8 

41.7 

51.4 

60.8 

69.8 

9/4 

22.7 

33.6 

44.2 

54.5 

64.4 

74.1 

10 

23.9 

35.4 

46.6 

57.5 

68.1 

78.4 

ioy 2 

25.2 

37-3 

49.1 

60.6 

71.8 

82.7 

n 

26.4 

39-1 

51.6 

63.7 

75.5 

87.0 

uy 2 

27.6 

41.0 

54.8 

66.7 

79.2 

91.3 

12 

28.8 

42.8 

56.5 

69.8 

82.8 

95.6 

12A 


44.6 

58.9 

72.9 

86.5 

99.9 

13 


46.5 

■61.4 

75.9 

90.2 

104.2 

1334 



63.8 

79.0 

93.9 

108.5 

14 



66.3 

82.1 

97.6 

112.8 

1434 



68.7 

85.2 

101.2 

117.0 

15 



71.2 

88.2 

104.9 

121.3 

16 



76.1 

94.3 

112.3 

129.9 

17 



81 0 

100 5 

119 7 

138 5 

18 



85.9 

106.6 

127.0 

147.1 

19 



90 8 

112 8 

134 4 

155 7 

20 

. 

. 

95.7 

118.9 

141.7 

164.3 


1 in. 

13^ in. 

VA in. 

VA in- 

1 % in. 

2 in. 

9 8 






14 7 






19 6 






24 6 






29 5 






34 4 

37 3 

39 9 




39 3 

49 8 

46 0 




44 2 

48 3 

52 2 




49 1 

53 9 

58 3 




54 0 

59 4 

64 4 




58 9 

64 9 

70 6 

81.0 



63 8 

70 4 

76 7 

88 4 



68 7 

75 9 

82 8 

95 7 




81 5 

89 0 

103 l 



78 5 

87 0 

95 1 

110 5 



83.5 

92^5 

101.2 

117.8 

133.2 


88.4 

98.0 

107.4 

125.2 

141.7 

157.1 

93.3 

103.5 

113.5 

132.5 

150.3 

166.9 

98.2 

109.1 

119.7 

139.9 

158.9 

176.7 

103.1 

114.6 

125.8 

147.3 

167.5 

186.5 

108.0 

120.1 

131.9 

154.6 

176.1 

196.3 

112.9 

125.6 

138.1 

162.0 

184.7 

206.2 

117.8 

131.2 

144.2 

169.4 

193.3 

216.0 

122.7 

136.7 

150.3 

176.7 

201.9 

225.8 

127.6 

142.2 

156.5 

184.1 

210.5 

235.6 

132.5 

147.7 

162.6 

191.4 

219.1 

245.4 

137.5 

153.2 

168.7 

198.8 

227.6 

255.2 

147.3 

164.3 

181.0 

213-5 

244.8 

274.9 

157.1 

175.3 

193.3 

228.3 

262.0 

294.5 

166.9 

186.4 

205.6 

243.0 

279.2 

314.1 

176.7 

197.4 

217.8 

257.7 

296.4 

333.8 

186.5 

208.5 

230.1 

274.4 

313.5 

353.4 


THICKNESS OF METAL. 


Increase in Weight for 1-2 In. Increase in Diameter. 


% in- 

% in 

X A in. 

% in. 

% in- 

Vs in- 

1 in. 

VA in- 

1 % in. 

1 % in- 

1 % in- 

2 in. 

1.2 

1.8 

2.5 

3.1 

3.7 

4.3 

4.9 

5.5 

6.1 

7.4 

8.6 

9.8 


378 









































































WEIGHT OF CAST IRON RACES. 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

2 

1.09 

5 

17.04 

8 

69.81 


2.13 

5^ 

22.68 

8 )i 

83.73 

3 

3.68 

6 

29.45 

9 

99.40 

3^ 

5.84 

6^ 

37.44 

10 

136.35 

4 

8.73 

7 

46.76 

11 

181.48 

4K 

12.42 

7^ 

57.52 

12 

235.65 


To Find the Weight of Cast Iron Balls When the 
Diameter is Given— Rule: Multiply the cube of the diameter 
by -1377- 

To Find the Diameter of Cast Iron Balls When the 
(Weight is Given — Rule: Multiply the cube root of the weight 
by 1 . 936 . 

To Find the Weight of a Spherical Shell— From the 
weight of a ball of the outer diameter subtract the weight of one 
of the inner diameter. 

Cast Iron—Assumed Weight in Estimating 
A cubic foot ..... = 450 lbs. 

A square foot, 1 inch thick . . . . = 38 “ 

,A bar 1 inch square and 1 foot long . . = 3.125 “ 

TAREE OF WEIGHT PER EINEAE FOOT OF ROUND 


Diameter, 

Inches. 

W eight, 
Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

Diameter, 

Inches. 

Weight, 

Lbs. 

1 

1 

2.45 

5 

61 36 

9 

198.80 

m 

3.84 

5^ 

67.65 

9>£ 

221.51 


5 52 

5>^ 

74.25 

10 

245.44 


7.52 

% 

81.15 

10 }£ 

270.60 

2 

9.82 

6 

88.36 

11 

296 98 

m 

12.43 


95.87 

UK 

324 59 

2 % 

15.34 

6^ 

103.70 

12 

353.43 

2 % 

18.56 

6K 

111.83 

13 

414.79 

3 

22 09 

7 

120.26 

14 

481 06 

3 yi 

25.92 

7 M 

129.01 

15 

552.23 


30 07 

7 % 

138 06 

16 

628.32 

3% 

34 52 


147.42 

17 

709.31 

4 

39.27 

8 

157 08 

18 

795.22 

iM 

44.33 

8 M 

167.05 

20 

981 75 


49.70 

8/4 

177.33 

22 

1187.92 


55.38 

8 % 

187 91 

24 

1413.72 


379 




































Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Cast Iron. 

Square of diameter multiplied by 2.46 equals weight of cast 
iron round bar 1 foot long. 

To ascertain weight of cast iron columns or pipe subtract 
weight of inside diameter of shell from weight of outside diame¬ 
ter. 

Square of the diameter divided by 5 equals approximately the 
weight of a circular cast iron plate 1 inch thick. 

Rules for Obtaining Approximate Weight of Wrought Iron. 

For Round Bars — Rule: Multiply the square of the diame¬ 
ter in inches by the length in feet, and that product by 2 . 6 . The 
product will be the weight in pounds, nearly. 

For Square and Flat Wrought Bars— Ru.e: Multiply 
the area of the end of the bar in inches by the length in feet, 
and that by 3 . 32 . The product will be the weight in pounds, 
nearly. 

To find the sectional area of a bar of wrought iron, given the 
weight per foot, multiply by 3 and divide by 10 . 

To find the weight per foot, given the area, divide by 3 and 
multiply by 10 . 

To Convert Weight of 


Wrought Iron into Cast Iron 

. X 0.928 

“ “ “ Steel ' 

X 1014 

“ “ “ Zinc . 

. X 0.918 

“ “ “ Brass 

X 1-082 

“ “ “ Copper 

. X 1-144 

“ « “ Lead 

X 1-468 

Square Iron into Round 

. X -7854 


Decimal Approximations Useful in Calculations, 


Cubic inches, 

X 

.267 

=c= 

lbs. 

average cast iron. 

(l 

44 

X 

.281 

= 

44 

44 

wrought iron. 

(4 

44 

X 

.283 

= 

44 

44 

cast steel. 

44 

44 

X 

.3225 

= 

44 

44 

copper. 

44 

44 

X 

.3037 

= 

44 

44 

brass. 

44 

44 

X 

.26 

= 

44 

44 

zinc. 

44 

44 

X 

.4103 

= 

44 

<4 

lead. 

44 

44 

X 

.2636 

= 

44 

44 

tin. 

44 

44 

X 

.4908 

= 

44 

44 

mercury, 
cast iron. 

Cylin. 

44 

X 

.2065 

= 

44 

44 

44 

44 

X 

.2168 

= 

44 

44 

wrought iron. 

44 

44 

X 

.2223 

= 

44 

44 

cast steel. 

44 

44 

X 

.2533 

= 

44 

44 

copper. 

44 

44 

X 

.2385 

= 

44 

44 

brass. 

44 

44 

X 

.2042 

= 

44 

44 

zinc. 

44 

44 

X 

.3223 

= 

44 

44 

lead. 

44 

44 

X 

.207 

= 

44 

44 

tin. 

44 

44 

X 

.3854 

= 

44 

44 

380 

mercury. 


Weight of a Lineal Foot of Flat Bar Iron, in Lbs. 

BIRMINGHAM GAUGE. 


Breadth in 


THICKNESS IN FRACTIONS OF INCHES. 


Inches, 

J4 

5-16 

% 

7-16 

l A 

% 

% 

Vs 

1 

1 

.83 

1.04 

1.25 

1.46 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

}H 

.93 

1.17 

1.40 

1.64 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.75 

VA 

1.04 

1.30 

1.56 

1.82 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

1 % 

1.14 

1.43 

1.72 

2.00 

2.29 

2.87 

3.44 

4.01 

4.59 


1.25 

1.56 

1.87 

2.19 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.00 

iff 

1.35 

1.69 

2.03 

2.37 

2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.70 

5.43 

iff 

1.46 

1.82 

2.19 

2.55 

2.92 

3.65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 


1.56 

1.95 

2.34 

2.74 

3.13 

3.91 

4.69 

5.47 

6.26 

2 

1.67 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.34 

4.17 

5.01 

5.86 

6.68 

2 Vs 

1.77 

2.21 

2.66 

3.10 

3.55 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.10 

2 X. 

1.87 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.76 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.52 


1.98 

2.47 

2.97 

3.47 

3.96 

4.95 

5.95 

6.94 

7.93 

2 A 

2.08 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

2§i 

2.19 

2.74 

3.28 

3.83 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.77 

2% 

2.29 

2.87 

3 44 

4.01 

4.59 

5.74 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

2% 

2.40 

3.00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

3 

2.50 

3.13 

3.75 

4 38 

5.01 

6.26 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 

3/4 

2.71 

3.39 

4.07 

4.74 

5.43 

6.78 

8.14 

9.49 

10.86 

&A 

2.92 

3 65 

4.38 

5.11 

5.84 

7.30 

8.76 

10.23 

11.69 

354 

3.13 

3.91 

4.68 

5.47 

6.26 

7.82 

9.39 

10.95 

12.52 

4 

3.34 

4.17 

5.00 

5.84 

6.68 

8.35 

10.02 

11.69 

13.36 

4/4 

3.54 

4.43 

5.32 

6.21 

7.09 

8.87 

10.64 

12.42 

14.19 

4H 

3.75 

4.69 

5.63 

6.57 

7.51 

9.39 

11.27 

13.15 

15.03 

454 

4.06 

4.95 

5.94 

6.94 

7.93 

9.91 

11.89 

13.88 

15.86 

5 

4.17 

5.21 

6.26 

7.30 

8.35 

10.44 

12.52 

14.61 

16.70 

5/4 

4.38 

5.47 

6.57 

7.67 

8.76 

11.06 

13.14 

15.34 

17.53 

5ll 

4.59 

5.73 

6.88 

8.03 

9.18 

11.48 

13.77 

16.07 

18.37 

554 

4.80 

6.00 

7.20 

8.40 

9.60 

12.00 

14.40 

16.80 

19.20 

6 

5.01 

6.25 

7.51 

8.76 

10.02 

12.53 

15.03 

17.53 

20.05 


Wrought Iron, Assumed Weight, 
k cubic foot ..... 

k square foot, i inch thick 
k bar i inch square, i foot long . 
k “ i “ “ i -yard long 


= 480 lbs. 
= 40 “ 



GAUGES AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS. 


i No. 

27, 

equal to 


inch. 

No. 

12 , 

equal to Jr 

inch. 

44 

21 , 

44 

44 


44 

44 

10 , 

44 

“ i' 
78 

44 

ft 

18, 

44 

44 


44 

44 

8 , 

44 

« ll 

44 

44 

16, 

44 

44 

tV 

44 

44 

6 , 

44 

a 3 
TH 

44 

44 

14, 

44 

44 


44 

44 

5, 

(4 

“ J? 

44 

44 

13, 

44 

44 

A 

44 

44 

4, 

44 

“ H 

44 


Truth is as impossible to be soiled by any outward touch as 
he sunbeam.— Lord Baton. 


381 

























AMERICAN AND BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGES. 
THICKNESS IN INCHES. 

Haswell. 


Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birmingham 

Gauge. 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

American 

Gauge. 

Thickness 

Birminghai 

Gauge. 

0000 

.46 

.454 

17 

.0452 

.058 

000 

.4096 

.425 

18 

.0403 

.049 

00 

.3648 

.38 

19 

.0359 

.042 

0 

.3248 

.34 

20 

.0319 

.035 

1 

.2893 

.30 

21 

.0284 

.032 

2 

.2576 

.284 

22 

.0253 

.028 

3 

.2294 

.259 

23 

0225 

.025 

4 

.2043 

.238 

24 

.0201 

.022 

5 

.1819 

.22 

25 

.0179 

.02 

6 

.1620 

.203 

26 

.0160 

.018 

7 

.1443 

.18 

27 

.0142 

. 0 J 6 

8 

.1285 

.165 

28 

.0126 

.014 

9 

.1144 

.148 

29 

.0112 

.013 

10 

.1019 

.134 

30 

.01 

.012 

11 

.0907 

.12 

31 

.0089 

.01 

12 

.0808 

.109 

32 

0079 

.009 

13 

.0719 

.095 

33 

.007 

.008 

14 

.0641 

.083 

34 

.0063 

.007 

15 

.057 

.072 

35 

.0056 

.005 

16 

.0508 

.065 

36 

005 

.004 


The Area, of a Circle* 

Of all plane figures, the circle is the most capacious, or has th 
greatest area within the same limits. It is geometrically demor 
strable that it has the same area as a right-angled triangle wit 
a base equal to its circumference, and a perpendicular equal t 
its radius, that is, half the- product of the radius and circumfei 
ence. It is obviously larger than any figure, of however man 
sides, inscribed within its perimeter, and smaller than any cii 
cumscribed polygon. As a result of laborious calculations o 
this basis (pushed in one instance to 6oq places of decimals with 
out reaching the end), it has been ascertained that the ratio c 
the diameter to the circumference of any circle (sufficient) ex 
act for all practical purposes), is as i : 3.1416 ( 3 . 141592653 -I-) c 
in whole numbers, approximately, as 7 : 22 , or more nearly ? 
1 x 3 : 355* Hence, to find the circumference or diameter, tl 
other quantity being known, multiply or divide by 3 . 1416 ; and t 
find the area, multiply half the diameter by half the circumfei 
ence, or the square of the diameter by .7854 ( 3 .i 4 i 6 -=- 4 ). 

To find the surface of a globe, multiply the square < 
the diameter by 3 . 1416 . 

To find the solidity of a globe, multiply the cube of th 
diameter by . 5236 . [382] 

















AREAS OF CIRCLES, 

Advancing by eighths. 


AREAS. 


0 

Vs 

% 

% 

Va 

% 

% 

% 

.0 

.0122 

.0490 

.1104 

.1963 

.3068 

.4417 

.6013 

.7854 

.9940 

1.227 

1.484 

1.767 

2.073 

2.405 

2.761 

3.1416 

3.546 

3.976 

4.430 

4.908 

5.411 

5.939 

64.91 

7.068 

7.669 

8.295 

8.946 

9.621 

10.32 

11.04 

11.79 

12.56 

13.36 

14.18 

15.03 

15.90 

16.80 

17.72 

18.66 

19.63 

20.62 

21.64 

22.69 

23.75 

24.85 

25.96 

27.10 

28.27 

29.46 

30.67 

31.91 

33.18 

34.47 

35.78 

37.12 

38.48 

39.87 

41.28 

42.71 

44.17 

45.66 

47.17 

48.70 

50.26 

51.84 

53.45 

55.08 

56.74 

58.42 

60.13 

61.86 

63.61 

65.39 

67.20 

69.02 

70.88 

12.75 

74.69 

76.58 

78.54 

80.51 

82.51 

84.54 

86.59 

88 66 

90.76 

92.88 

95.03 

97.20 

99.40 

101.6 

103.8 

106.1 

108.4 

110.7 

113.0 

115.4 

117.8 

120.2 

122.7 

125.1 

127.6 

130.1 

132.7 

135.2 

137.8 

140.5 

143.1 

145.8 

148.4 

151.2 

153.9 

156.6 

159.4 

162-2 

165.1 

167.9 

170.8 

173.7 

176.7 

179 6 

182.6 

185.6 

188.6 

191.7 

194.8 

197.9 

201.0 

204.2 

207.3 

210.5 

213.8 

217.0 

220.3 

223.6 

226.9 

230.3 

233.7 

237.1 

240.5 

243.9 

247.4 

250.9 

254.4 

258.0 

261.5 

265.1 

268.8 

272.4 

276.1 

279.8 

283.5 

287.2 

291.0 

294 8 

298.8 

302.4 

306.3 

310.2 

314.1 

318.1 

322.0 

326.0 

330.0 

334.1 

338.1 

342.2 

346.3 

350.4 

354.6 

358.8 

363.0 

367.2 

371.5 

375.8 

380.1 

384.4 

388.8 

393.2 

397.6 

402.0 

406.4 

410.9 

415.4 

420.0 

424.5 

429.1 

433.7 

438.3 

443.0 

447.6 

452.3 

457.1 

461.8 

466.6 

471.4 

476.2 

481.1 

485.9 

490.8 

495.7 

500.7 

505.7 

510.7 

515.7 

520.7 

525.8 

530.9 

536.0 

541.1 

546.3 

551.5 

556.7 

562.0 

567.2 

572.5 

577.8 

583.2 

588.5 

593.9 

599.3 

604.8 

610.2 

615.7 

621.2 

626.7 

632.3 

637.9 

643.5 

649.1 

654.8 

660.5 

666.2 

671.9 

677.7 

683.4 

689.2 

695.1 

700.9 

706.8 

712.7 

718.6 

724.6 

730.6 

736.6 

742.6 

748.6 

754.8 

760.9 

767.0 

773.1 

779.3 

785.5 

791.7 

798.0 

804.3 

810.6 

816.9 

823.2 

829.6 

836.0 

842.4 

848.8 

855 3 

861.8 

868.3 

874.9 

881.4 

888.0 

894.6 

901.3 

907 9 

914.7 

921.3 

928.1 

934.8 

941.6 

948.4 

955.3 

962.1 

969.0 

975.9 

982.8 

989.8 

996.8 

1003.8 

1010.8 

1017.9 

1025.0 

1032.1 

1039.2 

1046.3 

1053.5 

1060.7 

1068.0 

1075.2 

1082.5 

1089.8 

1097.1 

1104.5 

1111.8 

1119.2 

1126.7 

1134 1 

1141.6 

1149.1 

1156.6 

1164.2 

1171.7 

1179.3 

1186.9 

) 1194.6 

1202.3 

1210.0 

1217.7 

1225.4 

1233.2 

1241.0 

1248.8 

1256.6 

1264.5 

1272.4 

1280.3 

1288.2 

1296.2 

1304.2 

1312.2 

1320 3 

1328.3 

1336.4 

1344.5 

1352.7 

1360.8 

1369.0 

1377.2 

1385 4 

1393.7 

1402.0 

1410.3 

1418.6 

1427.0 

1435.4 

1443.8 

1452 2 

1460.7 

1469.1 

1477.6 

1486.2 

1494.7 

1503.3 

1511.9 

1520 5 

1529.2 

1537.9 

1546.6 

1555.3 

1564.0 

1572.8 

1581.6 

1590.4 

1599.3 

1608.2 

1617.0 

1626.0 

1634.9 

1643.9 

1652.9 


383 




























CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES 

Advancing by eighths. 


CIRCUMFERENCES. 


Diam. 

0 

Va 

A 

% 

l A 

% 

% 

Vs 

0 

.0 

.3927 

.7854 

1.178 

1.570 

1.963 

2.356 

2.74 

1 

3.141 

3.534 

3.927 

4.319 

4.712 

5.105 

5.497 

5.89 

2 

6.283 

6.675 

7.068 

7.461 

7.854 

8.246 

8.639 

9.03 

3 

9.424 

9.817 

10.21 

10.60 

10.99 

11.38 

11.78 

12.17 

4 

12.56 

12.95 

13.35 

13.74 

14.13 

14.52 

14.92 

15.31 

5 

15.70 

16.10 

16.49 

16.88 

17.27 

17.67 

18.06 

18.45 

6 

18.84 

19.24 

19.63 

20.02 

20.42 

20.81 

21.20 

21.59 

7 

21.99 

22.38 

22.77 

23.16 

23.56 

23.95 

24.34 

24.74 

8 

25.13 

25.52 

25.91 

26.31 

26.70 

27.09 

27.48 

27.88 

9 

28.27 

28 66 

29.05 

29.45 

29.84 

30.23 

30.63 

31.02 

10 

31.41 

31.80 

32.20 

32.59 

32.98 

33.37 

33.77 

34.16 

11 

34.55 

34.95 

35.34 

35.73 

36.12 

36.52 

36.91 

37.30 

12 

37.69 

38.09 

38.48 

38.87 

39.27 

39.66 

40.05 

40.44 

13 

40.84 

41.23 

41.62 

42.01 

42.41 

42.80 

43.19 

43.58 

14 

43.98 

44.37 

44.76 

45.16 

45.55 

45.94 

46.33 

46.73 

15 

47.12 

47.51 

47.90 

48.30 

48.69 

49.08 

49.48 

49.87 

16 

50.26 

50.65 

61.05 

51.44 

51.83 

52.22 

52.62 

53.01 

17 

53.40 

53.79 

64.19 

54.58 

54.97 

55.37 

55.76 

56.15 

18 

56.54 

56.94 

57.33 

57.72 

58.11 

58.51 

58.90 

59.29 

19 

59.69 

60.08 

60.47 

60.86 

61.26 

61.65 

62.04 

62.43 

20 

62.83 

63.22 

63.61 

64.01 

64.40 

64.79 

65.18 

65.58 

21 

65.97 

66.36 

66.75 

67.15 

67.54 

67.93 

68.32 

68.72 

22 

69.11 

69.50 

69.90 

70.29 

70.68 

71.07 

71.47 

71.86 

23 

72.25 

72.64 

73.04 

73.43 

73.82 

74.22 

74.61 

75.00 

24 

75.39 

75.79 

76.18 

76.57 

76.96 

77.36 

77.75 

78.14 

25 

78.54 

78.93 

79.32 

79.71 

80.10 

80.50 

80.89 

81.28 

26 

81.68 

82.07 

82.46 

82.85 

83.25 

83.64 

84.03 

84.43 

27 

84.82 

85.21 

85.60 

86.00 

86.39 

86.78 

87.17 

87.57 

28 

87.96 

88.35 

88.75 

89.14 

89.53 

89 92 

90.32 

90.71 

29 

91.10 

91.49 

91.89 

92.28 

92.67 

93.06 

93.46 

93.85 

30 

94.24 

94.64 

95.03 

95.42 

95.81 

96.21 

96.60 

96.99 

31 

97.39 

97.78 

98.17 

98.57 

98.96 

99.35 

99.75 

100.14 

32 

100.53 

100.92 

101.32 

101.71 

102.10 

102.49 

102.89 

103.29 

33 

103.67 

104.07 

104.46 

104.85 

105.24 

105.64 

106.03 

106.42 

34 

106.81 

107.21 

107.60 

107.99 

108.39 

108.78 

109.17 

109.56 

35 

109.96 

110.35 

110.74 

111.13 

111.53 

111.92 

112.31 

112.71 

36 

113.10 

113.49 

113.88 

114.28 

114.67 

115.06 

115.45 

115.85 

37 

116.24 

116.63 

117.02 

117.42 

117.81 

118 20 

118.61 

118.99 

38 

119.38 

119.77 

120.17 

120.56 

120.95 

121.34 

121.74 

122.1, 

39 

122.52 

122.92 

123.31 

123.70 

124.09 

124.49 

124.88 

125.27 

40 

125.66 

126.06 

126.45 

126.84 

127.24 

127.63 

128.02 

128.4] 

41 

128.81 

129.20 

127.59 

129.98 

130.38 

130.77 

131.16 

131.51 

42 

131.95 

132.34 

132.73 

133.13 

133.52 

133.91 

134.30 

134.7< 

43 

135.09 

135.48 

135.87 

136.27 

136.66 

137.05 

137.45 

137.8- 

44 , 

138.23 

138.62 

139.02 

139.41 

139.80 

140.19 

140.59 

140.91 

45 

141.37 

141.76 

142.16 

142.55 

142.94 

143.34 

143.73 

144.1: 


384 


























Table of Decimal Equivalents of 8ths, 16ths, 32nds 
and 64ths of an Inch. 


8ths. 

1 = 125 
i = .250 
| = .375 
| = .500 
f- = .625 
f = .750 
1 = .875 

16ths. 

tV = 0625 
A - -1875 
t 5 g —- .3125 
tV — 4375 
A = •5625 

tt = 68 75 

if = .8125 
if = .9375 

32nds. 

A = .03125 
A = -09375 


A = .15625 
A = 21875 
A = -28125 
it = .34375 

= .40625 
if = 46875 
if = 53125 
if = .59375 
It = .65625 
ft = .71875 
ft = .78125 
ff = .84375 
ff = .9C625 
ff = .96875 

64ths. 

= . 01o625 
A = 046875 
A = .078125 
A = 109375 

A = .140625 
it = .171875 
if == .203125 
if = .234375 


if = .265625 
if = 296875 
ff = .328125 
ff = 359375 
ff = 390625 
ff = .421875 
ff = .453125 
ft = .484375 
ff = .515625 
ff = .546875 
ff = .578125 
ff = .609375 
ff = .640625 
ff = .671875 
ff = .703125 
ff = .731375 
if = .765625 
ff = .796875 
ff = .828125 
ff =s .859375 
ff = .890625 
ff = .921875 
ft = .953125 
ff = .984375 


Handy Facts for Architects and Builders. 


Pitch of tin, copper or tar-and-gravel roofs five-eighths of an 
inch to the foot and upwards. 

The average weight of 20,000 men and women weighed at 
Boston was: Men, 141)4 lbs d women, I 24 )£ 4 bs. 

Smallest convenient size of slab for a 14 -in. wash bowl, 21 by 
24 in. Height of slab from floor, 2 ft. 6 in. 

Urinals should be 2 ft. 2 in. between partitions; partitions 6 ft. 
high. 

Space occupied by water-closets, 2 ft. 6 in. wide; 2 ft. deep. 

Dimensions of double bed, 6 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft. 6 in. 

Dimensions of single bed (in dormitories), 2 ft 8 in. by 6 ft. 
6 in. 

Dimensions of a bureau, 3 ft. 2 in. wide, 1 ft. 6 in. deep, and 
upwards. . . 

Dimensions of a common wash-stand, 2 ft. 4 in. wide, 1 ft. 6 
in. deep. 


385 











HANDT FACTS FOR ARCHITECTS , ETC. 

Dimensions of a barrel—Diameter of head, 17 in.; bung, 19 
in.; length, 28 in.; volume, 7,680 cubic in. 

Dimensions of billiard tables (Collender )—4 ft. by 8 ft.; 4 ft. 
2 in. by 9 ft.; and 5 ft. by 10 ft. Size of room required respect¬ 
ively, 13 by 17 ; 14 by 18 ; 15 by 20 . 

Horse-stalls—Width, 3 ft. 10 in. to 4 ft., or else 5 ft. or over in 
width—nine feet long. Width should never be between 4 and 5 
ft., as in that case the horse is liable to cast himself. 

HOUSE POWER OF STEAM ENGINES, ETC. 

The unit of nominal power for steam engines, or the usual es¬ 
timate of dynamical effect per minute of a horse, called by en¬ 
gineers a “horse power,” is 33,000 pounds at a velocity of 1 foot 
per minute, or, the effect of a load of 200 pounds raised by a 
horse for 8 hours a day, at the rate of 234 miles per hour, or 150 
pounds at the rate of 220 feet per minute. 

Rule. —Multiply the area of the piston in square inches by 
the average force of the steam in pounds and by the velocity of 
the piston in feet per minute; divide the product by 33 , 000 , and 
xV of the quotient equal the effective power. 

Another Rule.— The diameter of the piston in inches, mul¬ 
tiplied by itself, multiplied by the stroke in inches, multiplied by 
the revolutions per minute (not the strokes), multiplied by the 
mean effective (average pressure per square inch on piston), mul¬ 
tiplied by . 00000397 , gives the gross or indicated horse power. 

For the net effective horse power, deduct from the above about 
3 ^ for friction of the working parts. 

The mean effective pressure can be accurately determined only 
by the aid of an indicator. When the indicator is not used, and 
in the calculation the boiler pressure is substituted for the mean 
effective pressure, deduct from the result obtained from 40 to 60 
per cent, for loss by condensation and friction of steam pipes and 
passages, decrease of pressure in cylinder due to expansion, back 
pressure of exhaust, and friction of the working parts. 

For engines from 20 to 60 horse power, an average of 50 per 
cent, may be deducted; for smaller engines, more. 



% “ “ “ “ “ “ .992 

Best designed boilers, well set, with good draft and skillful 
firing, will evaporate from 7 to 10 lbs. of water per pound of first- 

386 


HORSE ROTTER OR STEAM ENGINES. 

class coal. The average result is from 30 to 60 per cent, below 
.this. 

In calculating horsepower of Tubular or Flue boilers, con¬ 
sider 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one nominal 
-horse power. 

One square foot of grate will cohsume on an average 12 lbs. 
of coal per hour. 

Steam engines, in economy, vary from 30 to 60 lbs. of feed 
water and from 2 to 7 lbs. of coal per hour per indicated H. P. 

HOUSE POWER OF BELTING. 

A simple rule for ascertaining transmitting power of belting, 
without first computing speed per minute that it travels, is as fol¬ 
lows: Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of 
revolutions per minute, and this product by width of the belt in 
inches; divide the product by 3,300 for single belting, or by 2,100 
for double belting, and the quotient will be the amount of horse 
power that can be safely transmitted. 


Table for Single Eeatber, Four Piy Rubber and Four 
Ply Cotton Rolling, Belts not Overloaded. 

1 INCH WIDE, 800 FEET PER MINUTE=1 HORSE POWER. 


Speed 
in Ft per 
Min. 

2 

3 

4 

WIDTH OF BELTS IN INCHES. 

5 6 8 10 12 14 

16 

18 

20 


H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H. P. 

H.P. 

400 

1 

n 

2 

21 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

600 

1| 

21 

3 

3| 

41 

6 

71 

9 

101 

12 

131 

15 

800 

21 

3 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14“ 

16 

18 

20 

1000 

2 

3f 

5 

61 

71 

10 

121 

15 

171 

20 

221 

25 

1200 

3 

41 

6 

71 

9 

12 

15 

18 

21 

24 

27“ 

30 

1500 

3f 

5f 

71 

61 

HI 

15 

18f 

221 

261 

30 

33f 

371 

1800 

4 } 

6| 

9 

HI 

131 

18 

991 

27 

311 

36 

401 

45 

2000 

5 

71 

10 

121 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

2400 

6 

9 

12 

15 

18 

24 

30 

36 

42 

48 

54 

60 

2800 

7 

101 

14 

171 

21 

28 

35 

42 

49 

56 

63 

70 

6000 

n 

n| 

15 

18f 

221 

30 

371 

45 

521 

60 

671 

75 

3500 

8f 

13 

171 

22 

26 

35 

44 

521 

61 

70 

79 

88 

4000 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

4500 

ill 

17 

221 

28 

34 

45 

57 

69 

78 

90 

102 

114 

5000 

121 

19 

25 

31 

371 

50 

621 

75 

871 

100 

112 

125 


Double leather, six-ply rubber or six-ply cotton belting will 
transmit 50 to 75 per cent, more power than is shown in this table. 
(One inch wide, 550 feet per minute=one horse power.) 




















Table of Transmission of Power by AVire Ropes 


1 Diameter of 
Wheel in Ft. 

Number of 
Revolutions. 

Trade No. 

of Rope. 

! Diameterof 

Rope. 

1 

Horse 

Power. 

Diameterof 

Wheel in Ft. 

Number of 

Revolutions 

Trade No. 

of Rope. 

Diameterof 

Rope. 

4 

80 

23 

3 

8 

3.3 

10 

80 

(19 

(18 

5 

8 


4 

100 

23 

3 

8 

4.1 

10 

100 

(19 

118 

5 

8 

11 

¥6 

4 

120 

23 

3 

g 

5 0 




(19 

(18 



4 

140 

23 

8 

8 

5.8 

10 

120 


t 

1 1 
1 6 

5 

80 

22 

7 

1 6 

6.9 

10 

140 


(19 

’(IS 

5 

8 

1 1 
T6 

5 

100 

22 

7 

1 6 

8.6 

11 

80 


Q9 

(18 

5 

8 

1 1 

T¥ 

5 

120 

22 

7 

T¥ 

10.3 




(XO 

(19 

(18 



5 

140 

22 

7 

1 6 

12.1 

11 

100 


5 

8 

1 1 

1 6 

6 

80 

21 

1 

2 

10.7 

11 

120 


19 

18 

5 

8 

1 1 

1 6 

6 

6 

100 

120 

21 

21 

1 

2 

1 

S 

13 4 

16.1 

11 

140 


19 

(18 

j 18 

(17 

5 

8 

1 1 
T6 

6 

140 

21 

1 

2 

18.7 

12 

. 80 


1 1 
16 

3 

¥ 

7 

80 

20 

9 

T(f 

16.9 

12 

100 

18 

(17 

1 1 

T6 

I 

7 

7 

100 

120 

20 

20 

9 

TO 

9 

T S' 

21.1 

25 3 

12 

120 

) 

18 

17 

18 

17 

1 1 

TF 

3 

¥ 

7 

140 

20 

9 

1 6 

29.6 

12 

140 

j 

11 
16 

3 

¥ 

8 

80 

19 

5 

8 

22.0 

13 

80 

18 

(17 

1 1 

1 6 

3 

¥ 

8 

100 

19 

5 

27 5 


100 

(IS 



8 

120 

19 

8 

5 

8 

33.0 

13 

1 

17 

18 

17 

1 1 

1 6 

3 

¥ 

8 

140 

19 

5 

8 

38.5 

13 

120 

1 

1 1 

1 6 

3 

¥ 

9 

80 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

It? 8 

(40.0 

(41.5 

14 

80 

j 

< 

17 

16 

17 

16 

17 

16 

3 

¥ 

7 

8 

9 

100 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

16 8 

(50.0 
(51 9 

14 

14 

100 

120 

I 

1 

3 

¥ 

3 

¥ 

7 

8 

7 

8 

9 

120 

(20 

(19 

9 5 

16 8 

(60 0 
(62.2 

15 

80 

1 

17 

16 

3 

¥ 

8 

9 

140 

(20 

9 5 

16 8 

j70 0 

15 

100 

1 

17 

16 

3 

¥ 

j 


(19 

(72 6 


120 


17 







15 

1 

16 

3 

¥ 

7 

8 


388 


■S 

o 

n. 


X 


55 0 


58 4 
68 7 
73 0 
82.5 


87 6 


96.2 


] 102.2 


64 9 
( 75 5 
j 81 1 
( 94 4 
j 97 3 
(113 3 
(113.6 
(132.1 
j 93 4 
( 99.3 
(116 7 
1124.1 
(140 1 
(148 9 
(163.5 
(173.7 
( 112.0 
] 122.6 
(140 0 
(153 2 
(168.0 
(183.9 
(148.0 
]141.0 
(185,0 
(176.0 
(222 0 
( 211.0 
(217.0 
(217 0 
(259.0 
(259.0 
]300 0 
(300 0 





































USEFUL HYDRAULIC INFORMATION. 


A gallon of water (U. S. standard) weighs 8)4 pounds and 
ontains 231 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs 62% 
ounds, and contains 1,728 cubic inches or 73 ^ gallons. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four 
mes. Friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the 
elocity. 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated at 
4.7 pounds per square inch, so that with a perfect vacuum it 
dll sustain a column of mercury 29.9 inches or a column of 
r ater 33.9 feet high. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of 
r ater, multiply the height of the column in feet by . 434 . 
approximately we say that every foot elevation is equal to 
ound pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary fric- 


on. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given 
uantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the stand- 
rd of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4 , then extract 
le square root, and the product will be the diameter in inches of 
le pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 
00 feet of piston speed per minute: Square the diameter of the 
rater cylinder in inches and multiply by 4 . Example: Ca- 
acity of a 5 -inch cylinder is desired. The square ofthe diameter 
5 inches) is 25 , which, multiplied by 4 , gives 100 , the number of 
allons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given 
eight, multiply the total weight of the water in lbs. by the 
eight in feet and divide the product by 33,000 (an allowance of 
5 per cent, should be added for water friction, and a further al- 
Dwance of 25 per cent, for loss in steam cylinder). 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam pressure, 
ives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. The 
rea of the water piston multiplied by the pressure of water per 
quare inch gives the resistance. A margin must be made be- 
ween the power and the resistance to move the pistons at the 
equired speed—say from 20 to 40 per cent., according to speed 
nd other conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
he area in inches by the length of stroke in inches, will give 
he total number of cubic inches; divide this amount by 231 
which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), 
tnd the product is the capacity in gallons. 

With the efficient working of pumps certain precautions are 
lecessary. Following are a few hints that will be of service to 
>ersons interested in the subject: 

Care should be exercised to prevent foreign substances from entering the suction 

389 



USEFUL HTDR A ULIC IN FORM A TION. 


pipe. In case of such danger a strainer should be used and the total area of th< 
strainer holes should be from two to five times the area of the pipe. 

It is of great advantage to have the suction pipe as straight and free as possible 
Elbows and valves obstruct the flow of water much more than usually supposed. 

Above all other things, the suction pipe should be perfectly air-tight, as a verj 
small leak will supply the pump with so much air that little or no water will be ob 
tained. 

It is advantageous, and, when high speed is desired, becomes a necessity, to con 
nect a vacuum chamber to the suction pipe near the pump. 

A foot-valve should be used on long or high suctions. Its area should be at least 
as much as the pipe. 

If in an exposed position, the pump should be thoroughly drained after stopping, 
to prevent injury by frost, by means of the drain-cocks provided for the purpose. 

When a pump is to remain idle for some time the steam cylinder should be well 
oiled before stopping. 

The stuffing-boxes should be carefully packed so as not to necessitate them being 
screwed down too tight. 

The most economical speed to run a pump is roofeet per minute. 

The friction of liquids in pipes increases as the square of the velocity. 

To find the capacity of a Double-Acting Pump in U. S. gal¬ 
lons per minute, multiply together: the area of the water cylin¬ 
der in inches; the length of the stroke in inches; the number of 
single strokes per minute. Divide the product by 231. For a 
Single-Acting Pump take half the number of single strokes. 

For domestic use water should be kept in wooden or iron 
tanks. Zinc can be used to advantage. The use of lead-lined 
tanks is exceedingly dangerous, especially for keeping rain 
water. 


CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS OR TANKS 

For Each Foot of Depth (U. S. Gallons). 


Diameter in 

Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

Diameter in 
Feet. 

Gallons. 

Pounds. 

2.0 

23.5 

196 

9.0 

475.9 

3.968 

2.5 

36.7 

306 

9.5 

530.2 

4,421 

3.0 

52.9 

441 

10.0 

587.5 

4,899 

3.5 

72.0 

600 

11.0 

710.9 

5,928 

4.0 

94.0 

784 

12.0 

846.0 

7,0,54 

4.5 

119.0 

992 

13.0 

992.9 

8,280 

5.0 

146.9 

1,225 

14.0 

1,151.5 

9,602 

5.5 

177.7 

1,482 

15.0 

1,321.9 

11,023 

6.0 

211.5 

1,764 

20.0 

2,350.1 

19,596 

6.5 

248.2 

2,070 

25.0 

3,672.0 

30,620 

7.0 

287.9 

2,401 

30.0 • 

5,287.7 

44,093 

7.5 

330.5 

2,756 

35.0 

7,197.1 

60,016 

8.0 

376.0 

3,135 

40.0 

9,400.3 

78,388 

8.5 

424.5 

3,540 

.... 




The great philosopher, Plato, defined man as a featherless 
biped. Thereupon the.shrewd old cynic, Diogenese, plucked the feathers from a 
goose, and, having labeled it “Plato’s man,” threw it over into the philosopher’s 
class-room. 


390 




















SIZE, CAPACITY, ETC., OF BOILERS. 

LOCOMOTIVES. 


Length. 

Diam. 

Fire Box 

Dome. 

Flues. 

Length. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Capac¬ 

ity. 

Ft. 

in. 

inches. 

inches. 

inches. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

sq. inches. 

sq. in. 

7 

3 

36 

30x30 

16x16 

46 2 

4 

6 

138 

850 

7 

3 

42 

30x36 

16x20 

48 2V 

4 

6 

240 

1100 

8 

3 

42 

36x36 

16x20 

48 2% 

5 


240 

1250 

10 

3 

42 

36x36 

20x24 

48 2^ 

7 


• 240 

1725 

12 

3 

42 

36x42 

24x24 

40 3 

8 

6 

280 

2000 

14 

3 

42 

36x42 

24x24 

40 3 

10 

6 

280 

2500 

10 

3 

48 

42x36 

24x24 

50 3 

7 


350 

2000 

14 

3 

48 

42x42 

24x30 

50 3 

10 

6 

350 

3000 

16 


48 

42x48 

30x30 

50 3 

11 

9 

350 

3600 


Shell %-in. C. H. No. 1 iron ; heads and fire-box, T Vin. C. H. 
lo. 1 flange ; wrought iron rings around fire door and in legs. 


HORIZONTAL TUBULARS. 


ength. 

Diam. 

Dome. 

No. Flues. 

Area 

Chimney. 

Heating S. 

Capacity. 

Feet. 

inches. 

inches. 

in. 

sq.inches. 

sq. inches. 

sq. inches. 

10 

36 

20x20 

30 3 

260 

280 

1400 

12 

36 

20x24 

30 3 

260 

330 

1650 

10 

42 

20x24 

40 3 

350 

380 

1900 

12 

42 

24x24 

40 3 

350 

440 

2200 

14 

42 

24x24 

40 3 

350 

480 

2400 

16 

42 

24x30 

40 3 

350 

560 

2800 

14 

48 

24x30 

50 3 

440 

630 

3150 

16 

48 

24x30 

50 3 

440 

725 

3625 

16 

54 

30x36 

50 3K 

625 

850 

4250 

16 

60 

30x36 

50 4 

800 

975 

4875 

18 

60 

30x36 

50 4 

800 

1250 

6250 


Small boilers: Sheil T V in - C. H. No. 1 iron; heads, x V*in. C 
T. No. 1 flange iron. 

Large boilers (54-in. and upwards): Shell %-in. C. H. No. 
L iron; heads, >£-in. C. H. No. 1 flange iron. 

BRICK CHIMNEYS. 

Thickness of brick-work, one brick from top to twenty-five 
j'eet from top; a brick and a half from 25 to 50 ft. from top, in- 
:reasing by half a brick for each additional 25 feet to bottom. 
The diameter at base should be not less than one-tenth the 
leight. If the inside diameter at top exceed feet, the top 
ength should be a brick and a half thick. 

391 





























BOILER CHIMNEYS. 

For marine boilers the general rule is to allow 14 sq. in. 1 
chimney for each nominal horse-power. For stationary boile 
the area of the chimneys should be one-fifth greater than tl 
combined area of all the flues or tubes. Where boilers are pr< 
vided with other means of draught the dimensions of the chimne 
are not so important. 

Diameter and Height of Boiler Chimneys. 


Horse pow’r 
of Boiler. 

Heigh; of 
Chimney. 

Interior Diam. 
at Top. 

Horse pow’r 
of Boiler. 

Height of 
Chimney. 

Interior Dial 
at Top. 

10 

60 ft. 

14 inches. 

70 

120 ft. 

30 inches. 

12 

75 “ 

14 

90 

120 “ 

34 “ 

16 

90 “ 

16 “ 

120 

135 “ 

38 

20 

99 “ 

17 “ 

160 

150 “ 

43 “ 

30 

105 “ 

21 “ 

200 

165 “ 

47 “ 

50 

120 “ 

26 

250 

180 “ 

42 “ 

60 

120 “ 

27 “ 

380 

195 “ 

57 “ 


Table of the Principal Alloys. 

A combination of copper and tin makes bath metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes bell metal. 

A combination of tin and copper makes bronze metal. 

A combination of tin, antimony, copper and bismuth make 
britannia metal. 

A combination of tin and copper makes cannon metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes Dutch gold. 

A combination of copper, nickel and zinc, with sometimes 
little iron and tin makes German silver. 

A combination of gold and copper makes standard gold. 

A combination of gold, copper and silver makes old-standar 
gold. 

A combination of tin and copper makes gun metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes mosaic gold. 

A combination of tin and lead makes pewter. 

A combination of lead and a little arsenic makes sheet meta 
A combination of silver and copper makes standard silver. 

A combination of tin and lead makes solder. 

A combination of lead and antimony quakes type metal. 

A combination of copper and arsenic makes white copper. 

How to Mix Printing Inks and Paints in the 
Preparation of Tints. 

THE FIRST NAMED COLOR ALWAYS PREDOMINATES. 
Mixing dark green and purple makes bottle green. 

Mixing white and medium yellow makes buflf tint. 

Mixing red, black and blue makes dark brown. 

Mixing bronze, blue, lemon yellow and black makes dark greei 
Mixing white, medium yellow and black makes drab tint. 
Mixing white, lake and lemon yellow makes flesh tint. 

















MIXING INKS AND PAINTS. 

'Mixing lemon yellow and bronze blue makes grass-green. 

] Mixing white and black makes gray tint. 

3 Mixing white and purple makes lavender tint. 

' Mixing red, black and medium yellow makes maroon. 

Mixing lake and purple makes magenta. 

Mixing medium yellow and purple makes olive green. 

Mixing medium yellow and red makes orange. 

Mixing white, ultramarine blue and black makes pearl tint. 
Mixing white and lake makes pink. 

Mixing ultramarine blue and lake makes purple. 

Mixing orange, lake and purple makes russet. 

Mixing medium yellow, red and white makes sienna. 

Mixing white and ultramarine blue makes sky blue. 

Mixing ultramarine blue, black and white makes slate. 

Mixing vermillion and black makes Turkey red. 

Mixing white, yellow, red and black makes umber. 

Durability of Different Woods. 

Experiments have been lately made by driving sticks, made of 
ifferent woods, each two feet long and one and one-half inches 
}uare, into the ground, only one-half an inch projecting out- 
ard. It was found that in five years all those made of oak, elm, 
sh, fir, soft mahogany, and nearly every variety of pine, were 
Dtally rotten. Larch, hard pine and teak wood were decayed on 
le outside only, while acacia, with the exception of being also 
lightly attacked on the exterior, was otherwise sound. Hard 
lahogany and cedar of Lebanon were in tolerably good con- 
ition; but only Virginia cedar was found as good as when put 
i the ground. This is of some importance to builders, showing 
rhat woods should be avoided, and what others used by pref- 
rence in underground work. 

The duration of wood when kept dry is very great, as beams 
till exist which are known to be nearly 1,100 years old. Piles 
riven by the Romans prior to the Christian era have been ex- 
mined of late, and found to be perfectly sound after an immer- 
ion of nearly 2,000 years. 

The wood of some tools will last longer than the metals, as in 
pades, hoes and plows. In other tools the wood is first gone 
s in wagons, wheelbarrows and machines. Such wood should 
>e painted or oiled; the paint not only looks well, but preserves 
he wood; petroleum oil is as good as a.ny other. 

Hard wood stumps decay in five or six years; spruce stumps 
lecay in about the same time; hemlock stumps in eight to nine 
rears'; cedar, eight to nine years; pine stumps, never. 

Cedar, oak, yellow pine and chestnut are the most durable 

voods in dry places. . . . 

Timber intended for posts is rendered almost proof against rot 
)y thorough seasoning, charring and immersion in hot coal tar. 




Specific Gravity of Various Substances. 

A gallon of water or wine weighs io lbs., and this is taken ; 
the basis of the following table. 


LIQUIDS. 

Water. 

.... 100 

TIMBER. 
Cork. 

. 24 

METALS. 

Zinc. 

Sea water. 

.... 103 

Poplar. 

. 38 

Cast iron. 

Dead Sea. 

.... 124 

Fir. 

. 55 

Tin. 

Alcohol. 

.... 84 

Cedar. 

. 61 

Bar iron. 

Olive oil. 

.... 92 

Pear. 

. 66 

Steel. 

Turpentine. 

.... 99 

Walnut .... 

. 67 

Copper. 

Wine. 

.... 100 

Cherry. 

. 72 

Brass. 

Urine. 


Maple. 

. 75 

Silver. 

Cider . 

.... 102 

Apple. 

. 79 

Lead. 

Beer. 

.... 102 

Ash. 

. 84 

Mercury. 

Woman’s milk.... 

.... 102 

Beech . 

. 85 

Gold. 

Cow’s “ .... 

.... 103 

Mahogany . 

. 106 

Platina. 

Goat’s “ .... 

.... 104 

Oak. 

. 117 


Porter. 

... 104 

Ebony. 

. 133 


Emerald. 

... 277.5 

PRECIOUS 
Diamond... 

STONES. 

. 353.0 

I Garnet. 

Crystal. 

.. 265.3 

Topaz. 

. 401.1 

1 Ruby. 


7 

7 

7. 
7 
7: 
8 ' 

8 . 

1 . 0 ! 

1 . 1 ! 

1 , 8 ! 

1,9: 

1,91 


406 

428 


SUNDRIES. 


Indigo__ 

.... 77 

Peat. 

. 133 

Porcelain.. 

. 2 

Gunpowder. 

.... 93 

Opium. 

. 134 

Stone. 


Butter. 

.... 94 

Honey. 

. 145 

Marble.... 

.2 

Ice. 

.... 117 

Ivory. 

. 183 

Granite.... 

.2’ 

Clay. 

.... 120 

Brick. 

.200 

Chalk. 


Coal. 


Sulphur. 

. 203 

Glass. 

. 2 


Weight in 

Cubic Feet. 




Lbs. per 



Lbs. pe 



Cub. Ft. 



Cub. Ft 

Cork. 



Brick. 



Cedar. 



Stone. 



Beech. 


.... 51 

Granite. 



Butter. 



Glass. 



Water. 


.... 62 

Iron. 



Mahogany. 


.... 66 

Copper. 



Ice. 


•:.. 70 

Silver. 



Oak. 



Lead. 


680 

Clay. 


.... 72 

Gold. 



Coal. 


.... 80 





Xensile and Transverse Strength 

A crushing force of i,ooo lbs. per square inch on a bar i inc 
square, and 12 inches long, gives the following ratios < 
strength: 


Tensile. Transverse. 


Stone. 100 10 

Glass. 123 10 


Tensile. Transvers 


Cast iron. 158 20 

Timber. 1,900 85 


Xensile Xest of steel. 

BAR 8 INCHES LONG. 


Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extension, 
Section. per Sq. Inch. Inches. 
1.0000 13.93 .01 

.9799 16.96 .10 

.9331 23.43 .40 

.8741 27.23 1.00 

Elastic Limit. 17.40 tons. 

Maximum strain... 28.35 “ 

Breaking load... 25-05 “ 


Sq. Inch Strain, Tons Extensio 

Section. per Sq. Inch, Inches. 

.8325 28.35 1.40 

.7088 27.32 2.00 

.5541 25.05 2.20 

Cohesion.45.21 tons. 

Extension. 27^ per cei 

Contraction.44^2 “ 


394 






































































































TENSILE STRENGTH OF STEEL.—Continued. 


a, 


Taking the strength of Swedish iron at ioo, the tensile 
strength of steel compares thus: 

1 Swedish iron. 100 I Cannon steel.173 

‘Boiler steel. 118 | Spring steel.202 


Pecuniary Value of metals. 


;j Few people have any idea of the value of precious metals other 
Jthan gold, silver and copper, which are commonly supposed to 
be the most precious of all. There are many metals more valuable 
and infinitely rarer. The following table gives the names and 
prices of all the known metals of pecuniary worth: 


Vanadium. 
Rubidium.. 
Zirconium . 
Lithium ... 
Glucium... 
Calcium... 
Strontium.. 
Terbium .. 
Vitrium. .. 
Erbium.... 
Cerium.... 
Didymium. 
Indium.... 
Ruthenium 
Rhodium .. 
Niobium... 
Barium.... 
Palladium . 
Osmium ... 
Iridium.... 
Uranium .. 
Titanium .. 
Chromium. 


Price per 


Av. pound. 

$10,000 

00 

9.070 

00 

7,200 

00 

7,000 

00 

5,400 

00 

4,500 

00 

4,200 

00 

4,080 

00 

4,080 

00 

3,400 

00 

3,400 

00 

3,200 

00 

3,200 

00 

2,400 

00 

2,300 

00 

2,300 

00 

1,800 

00 

1,400 

00 

1,300 

00 

1,090 

00 

900 

00 

689 

00 

500 

00 


Gold. . 

Molybdenum. 

Thallium. 

Platinum. 

Manganese. 

Tungstein. 

Magnesium. 

Potassium. 

Aluminum. 

Silver. 

Price per 
Av. pound. 

. 225 00 

. 150 00 

. 115 00 

. 32 00 

20 00 

Cobalt. 

. 16 00 

Sodium. .... 

.. 8 00 

Nickel. 

5 00 

Cadmium. 

. 4 00 

Bismuth. 

. 2 50 

Mercury. 

. 95 

Arsenic... 


Tin. 

. 25 

Copper. 

. 25 

Antimony. 

. 16 

Zinc. 

. 11 

Lead. 

. 08 


VALUE OF METALS AS CONDUCTORS. 



Heat. 

Electricity. 

Iron. 

Heat. 

Electricity. 

Gold. 

.100 

94 

. 37 

16 

Platinum. 

. 98 

16 

Zinc. 

. ... 36 

29 

Silver. 

. 97 

74 

Tin . 

. 30 

15 

Copper-- 


100 

TENACITY 

Lead. 

OF METALS,, 

. 18 

8 


A wire, o. 8 a of a line in diameter, will sustain weights as 


follows: 

Lead. 

Tin 

. 35 “ 

Silver. 

Platinum. 

.187 lbs. 


. 110 “ 

Copper. 

. 302 “ 

Gold. 


Iron... 

. 549 “ 


FLUID DENSITY OF METALS. 



. 6 48 

Copper. 


Iron. 


Silver. 


Tin.. 


Lead.. 



395 



















































































No 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 


160 375 

175 616 

185 193 

195 112 

205 379 

210 000 

226 981 

238 328 

250 047 

262 144 

274 626 

287 496 

300 763 

314 432 

328 509 

343 000 

357 911 

373 248 

389 017 

405 224 

421 875 

438 976 

456 533 

474 552 

493 039 

512 000 

531 441 

551 368 

571 787 

592 704 

614 125 

636 056 

658 503 

681 472 

704 969 

729 000 

753 571 

778 688 

804 357 

830 584 

857 375 

884 736 

912 673 

941 192 

970 299 

000 000 

030 301 

061 298 

092 727 

124 864 

157 625 

191 016 

225 043 

259 712 


TABLE OP SQUARES AND CL 

OF 

ALL NUMBERS FROM 1 TO 500. 


Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

1 

1 

55 

30 25 

4 

8 

56 

31 36 

9 

27 

57 

32 49 

16 

64 

58 

33 64 

25 

1 25 

59 

34 81 

36 

2 16 

60 

36 00 

49 

3 43 

61 

37 21 

64 

5 12 

62 

38 44 

81 

7 29 

63 

39 69 

1 00 

1 000 

64 

40 96 

1 21 

1 331 

65 

42 25 

1 44 

1 728 

66 

43 56 

1 69 

2 197 

67 

44 89 

1 96 

2 744 

68 

46 24 

2 25 

3 375 

69 

47 61 

2 56 

4 096 

70 

49 00 

2 89 

4 913 

71 

50 41 

3 24 

6 832 

72 

51 84 

3 61 

6 859 

73 

53 29 

4 00 

8 000 

74 

54 76 

4 41 

9 261 

75 

56 25 

4 84 

10 648 

76 

57 76 

5 29 

12 167 

77 

59 29 

5 76 

13 824 

78 

60 84 

6 25 

15 625 

79 

62 41 

6 76 

17 576 

80 

64 00 

7 29 

19 683 

81 

65 81 

7 84 

21 952 

82 

67 24 

8 41 

24 389 

83 

68 89 

9 00 

27 000 

84 

70 56 

9 61 

29 791 

85 

72 25 

10 24 

32 768 

86 

73 96 

10 89 

35 937 

87 

75 69 

11 56 

39 304 

88 

77 44 

12 25 

42 875 

89 

79 21 

12 96 

46 656 

90 

81 00 

13 69 

50 653 

91 

82 81 

14 44 

54 872 

92 

84 64 

15 21 

59 319 

93 

86 49 

16 00 

64 000 

94 

88 36 

16 81 

68 921 

95 

90 25 

17 64 

74 088 

96 

92 16 

18 49 

79 507 

97 

94 09 

19 36 

85 184 

98 

96 04 

20 25 

91 125 

99 

98 01 

21 16 

97 336 

100 

1 00 00 

22 09 

103 823 

101 

1 02 01 

23 04 

110 592 

102 

1 04 04 

24 01 

117 649 

103 

1 06 09 

25 00 

125 000 

104 

1 08 16 

26 01 

132 651 

105 

1 10 25 

27 04 

140 608 

106 

1 12 36 

28 09 

148 877 

107 

1 14 49 

29 16 

157 464 

108 

1 16 64 


396 






















Table of squares and cubes-cW/*W. 


No. 

| Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

109 

1 18 81 

1 295 029 

169 

2 85 61 

4 826 809 

110 

1 21 00 

1 331 000 

170 

2 89 00 

4 913 000 

111 

. 1 23 21 

1 367 631 

171 

2 92 41 

5 000 211 

112 

1 25 44 

1 404 928 

172 

2 95 84 

5 088 448 

113 

l 27 69 

1 442 897 

173 

2 99 29 

5 177 717 

114 

1 29 96 

1 481 544 

174 

3 02 76 

5 268 024 

115 

1 32 25 

1 520 875 

175 

3 06 25 

5 359 375 

116 

1 34 56 

1 560 896 

176 

3 09 76 

5 451 776 

117 

1 36 89 

1 601 613 

177 

3 13 29 

5 545 233 

118 

1 39 24 

1 643 032 

178 

3 16 84 

5 639 752 

119 

1 41 61 

1 685 159 

179 

3 20 41 

5 735 339 

120 

1 44 00 

1 728 000 

180 

3 24 00 

5 832 000 

121 

1 46 41 

1 771 561 

181 

3 27 61 

5 929 741 

122 

1 48 84 

1 815 848 

182 

3 31 24 

6 028 568 

123 

1 51 29 

1 860 867 

183 

3 34 89 

6 128 487 

124 

1 53 76 

1 906 624 

184 

3 38 56 

6 229 504 

125 

1 56 25 

1 953 125 

185 

3 42 25 

6 331 625 

126 

1 58 76 

2 000 376 

186 

3 45 96 

6 434 856 

127 

1 61 29 

2 048 383 

187 

3 49 69 

6 539 203 

128 

1 63 84 

2 097 152 

188 

3 53 44 

6 644 672 

129 

1 66 41 

2 146 689 

189 

3 57 21 

6 751 269 

130 

1 69 00 

2 197 000 

190 

3 61 00 

6 859 000 

131 

1 71 61 

2 248 091 

191 

3 64 81 

6 967 871 

132 

1 74 24 

2 299 968 

192 

3 68 64 

7 077 888 

133 

1 76 89 

2 352 637 

193 

3 72 49 

7 189 057 

134 

1 79 56 

2 406 104 

194 

3 76 36 

7 301 384 

135 

1 82 25 

2 460 375 

195 

3 80 25 

7 414 875 

136 

1 84 96 

2 515 456 

196 

3 84 16 

7 529 536 

137 

1 87 69 

2 571 353 

197 

3 88 09 

7 645 373 

138 

1 90 44 

2 628 072 

198 

3 92 04 

7 762 392 

139 

1 93 21 

2 685 619 

199 

3 96 01 

7 880 599 

140 

1 96 00 

2 744 000 

200 

4 00 00 

8 000 000 

141 

1 98 81 

2 803 221 

201 

4 04 01 

8 120 601 

142 

2 01 64 

2 863 288 

202 

4 08 04 

8 242 408 

143 

2 04 49 

2 924 207 

203 

4 12 09 

8 365 427 

144 

2 07 36 

2 985 984 

204 

4 16 16 

8 489 664 

145 

2 10 25 

3 048 625 

205 

4 20 35 

8 615 125 

146 

2 13 16 

3 112 136 

206 

4 24 36 

8 741 816 

147 

2 16 09 

3 176 523 

207 

4 28 49 

8 869 743 

148 

2 19 04 

3 241 792 

208 

4 32 64 

8 998 912 

149 

2 22 01 

3 307 949 

209 

4 36 81 

9 129 329 

150 

2 25 00 

3 375 000 

210 

4 41 00 

9 261 000 

151 

2 28 01 

3 442 951 

211 

4 45 21 

9 393 931 

152 

2 31 04 

3 511 808 

212 

4 49 44 

9 528 128 

153 

2 34 09 

3 581 577 

213 

4 53 69 

9 663 597 

154 

2 37 16 

3 652 264 

214 

4 57 96 

9 800 344 

155 

2 40 25 

3 723 875 

215 

4 62 25 

9 938 375 

156 

2 43 36 

3 796 416 

216 

4 66 56 

10 077 646 

157 

2 46 49 

3 869 893 

217 

4 70 89 

10 218 313 

158 

2 49 64 

3 944 312 

218 

4 75 24 

10 360 232 

159 

2 52 81 

4 019 679 

219 

4 79 61 

10 503 459 

160 

2 56 00 

4 096 000 

220 

4 84 00 

10 648 000 

161 

2 59 21 

4 173 281 

221 

4 88 41 

10 793 861 

162 

2 62 44 

4 251 528 

222 

4 92 84 

10 941 048 

163 

2 65 69 

4 330 747 

223 

4 97 29 

11 089 567 

164 

2 68 96 

4 410 944 

224 

5 01 76 

11 239 424 

165 

2 72 25 

4 492 125 

225 

5 06 25 

11 390 625 

166 

2 75 56 

4 574 296 

226 

5 10 76 

11 543 176 

167 

2 78 89 

4 657 403 

227 

5 15 29 

11 697 083 

168 

2 82 24 

4 741 632 

228 

5 19 84 

11 852 352 


397 

















TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES— Continued: 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

229 

5 24 41 

12 008 989 

289 

8' 35 21 

24 137 569 

230 

5 29 00 

12 167 000 

290 

8 41 00 

24 389 000 

231 

5 33 61 

12 326 391 

291 

8 46 81 

21 642 171 

232 

5 33 24 

12 487 168 

292 

8 52 64 

24 897 088 

233 

5 42 89 

12 649 337 

293 

8 58 49 

25 153 757 

234 

6 47 56 

12 812 904 

294 

8 64 36 

25 412 184 

235 

5 52 25 

12 977 875 

295 

8 70 25’ 

25 072 375 

236 

5 56 96 

13 144 256 

296 

8 76 16 

25 934 336 

237 

5 61 69 

13 312 053 

297 

8 82 09 

26 198 073 

238. 

5 66 44 

13 481 272 • 

298 

8 88 04 

26 463 592 

239 

5 71 21 

13 65L 919 

299 

8 94 01 

26 730 899 

240 

5 76 0!) 

13 824 000 

300 

9 00 00 

27 000 000 

241 

5 80 81 

13 997 521 

301 

9 06 01 

27 270 901 

242 

5 85 64 

14 172 4^8 

302 

9 12 04 

27 543 608 

213 

5 90 49 

14 348 907 

303 

9 18 09 

27 818 127 

244 

5 95 36 

14 526 784 

304 

9 24 16 

28 094 464 

245 

6 00 25 

14 706 125 

305 

9 30 25 

28 372 625' 

246 

6 05 16 

14 886 936 

306 

9 36 36 

28 652 616 

247 

6 10 09 

15 069 223 

307 

9 42 49 

28 934 443 

248 

6 15 04 

15 252 992 

308 

9 48 64 

29 218 112 

249 

6 20 01 

15 438 249 

309 

9 54 81 

29 503 629 

250 

6 25 05 

15 625 0U0 

310 

9 61 00 

29 791 000 

251 

6 30 01 

15 813 251 

311 

9 67 21 

30 080 231 

252 

6 35 04 

16 003 008 

312 

9 73 44 

30 371 328 

253 

6 40 09 

16 194 277 

313 

9 79 69 

30 664 297 

254 

6 45 16 

16 387 064 

314 

9 85 96 

30 959 144 

255 

6 50 25 

16 581 375 

315 

8 92 25 

31 255 875 

256 

6 55 36 

16 777 216 

316 

9 98 56 

31 554 496 

257 

6 60 49 

16 974 593 

317 

10 04 89 

31 855 013'- 

258 

6 65 64 

17 173 512 

318 

10 11 24 

32 157 432 

259 

6 70 81 

17 373 979 

319 

10 17 61 

32 461 759 

260 

6 76 00 

17 576 000 

320 

10 24 00 

32 768 000 

261 

6 81 21 

17 779 581 

321 

10 30 41 

33 076 161 

262 

6 86 44 

17 984 728 

322 

10 36 84 

33 386 24 8 : 

263 

6 91 69 

18 191 447 

323 

10 43 29 

33 698 267 

264 

6 96 96 

18 399 744 

324 

10 49 76 

34 012 224 

265 

7 02 25 

18 609 625 

325 

10 56 25 

34 328 125- 

266 

7 06 56 

18 82L 696 

326 

10 62 76 

34 645 976 

267 

7 12 89 

19 034 163 

327 

10 69 29 

34 965 783 

268 

7 18 24 

19 248 832 

328 

10 75 84 

35 287 552: 

269 

7 23 61 

19 465 109 

329 

10 82 41 

35 61l 289 

270 

7 29 00 

19 683 000 

330 

10 89 00 

35 937 000 

271 

7 34 41 

19 902 511 

331 

10 95 61 

36 264 691 

272 

7 39 84 

20 123 648 

332 

11 02 24 

36 594 368 

273 

7 45 29 

20 346 417 

333 

11 08 89 

36 926 037 

274 

7 50 76 

20 570 824 

334 

11 15 56 

37 259 704 

275 

7 56 25 

20 796 875 

335 

11 22 25 

37 595 375 

276 

7 61 76 

21 024 576 

336 

11 28 96 

37 933 056 

277 

7 67 29 

21 253 933 

337 

11 35 69 

38 272 753 

278 

7 72 84 

21 484 952 

338 

11 42 44 

38 614 472 

279 

7 78 41 

21 717 639 

339 

11 49 21 

38 958 219 1 

280 

7 84 00 

21 952 000 

340 

11 56 00 

39 304 000 

281 

7 89 61 

22 188 041 

341 

11 62 81 

39 651 821 

282 

7 95 24 

22 425 768 

342 

11 69 64 

40 001 688 

283 

8 00 89 

22 665 187 

343 

11 76 49 

40 353 607 

284 

8 06 56 

22 906 304 

344 

11 83 36 

40 707 584 

285 

8 12 25 

23 149 125 

345 

11 90 25 

41 063 625 

286 

8 17 96 

23 393 656 

346 

11 97 16 

41 421 736 

287 

8 23 69 

23 639 903 

347 

12 04 09 

41 781 923 

288 

8 29 44 

23 887 872 

348 

12 11 04 

42 144 192 


398 



















No. 

349 

350 

351 

352 

353 

354 

355 

a56 

357 

358 

359 

360 

361 

362 

363 

364 

365 

566 

367 

368 

369 

370 

371 

372 

373 

374 

375 

376 

377 

378 

379 

380 

381 

382 

383 

384 

385 

386 

387 

388 

389 

390 

391 

392 

393 

394 

395 

396 

397 

398 

399 

400 

401 

402 

403 

404 

405 

406 

407 

408 


TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES— Continued. 


Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

12 18 01 

■ 42 508 549 

409 

16 72 81 

68 417 929 

12 25 00 

42 875 090 

410 

16 81 00 

68 921 000 

12 32 01 

43 243 551 

411 

16 89 21 

69 426 531 

12 39 04 

43 614 208 

412 

16 97 44 

69 934 528 

12 46 09 

43 986 977 

413 

17 05 69 

70 444 997 

12 53 16 

44 361 864 

414 

17 13 96 

70 957 914 

12 60 25 

44 738 875 

415 

17 22 25 

71 473 375 

12 67 36 

45 118 016 

416 

17 30 56 

71. 991 296 

12 74 49 

45 499 293 

417 

17 38 89 

72 511 713 

12 81 64 

45 882 7(2 

418 

17 47 24 

73 034 632 

12 88 81 

46 268 279 

419 

17 55 61 

73 560 059 

12 96 00 

46 656 000 

420 

17 64 00 

74 088 000 

13 03 21 

47 045 881 

421 

17 72 41 

74 618 461 

13 10 44 

47 437 928 

422 

17 80 84 

75 151 448 

13 17 69 

47 832 147 

423 

17 89 29 

75 686 967 

13 24 96 

48 228 544 

424 

17 97 76 

76 225 024 

13 32 25 

48 627 125 

425 

18 06 25 

76 765 625 

13 39 56 

49 027 896 

426 

18 14 76 

77 308 776 

13 46 89 

49 430 863 

427 

18 23 29 

77 854 483 

13 54 24 

49 836 032 

428 

18 31 84 

78 402 752 

13 61 61 

50 243 409 

429 

18 40 40 

78 953 589 

13 69 00 

50 653 000 

! 430 

18 49 00 

79 507 000 

13 76 41 

51 064 811 

431 

18 57 61 

80 062 991 

13 83 84 

51 478 848 

432 

18 66 24 

80 621 568 

13 91 29 

51 895 117 

433 

18 74 89 

81 182 737 

13 98 76 

52 313 624 

434 

18 83 56 

81 746 504 

14 06 25 

. 52 734 375 

435 

18 92 25 

82 312 875 

14 13 76 

53 157 376 

436 

19 00 96 

82 881 856 

14 21 29 

53 582 633 

437 

19 09 69 

83 453 453 

14 28 84 

54 010 152 

433 

19 18 44 

84 027 672 

14 36 41 

54 439 939 

439 

19 21 21 

84 604 519 

14 44 00 

54 872 000 

440 

19 36 00 

85 184 000 

14 51 61 

55 306 341 

411 

19 44 81 

85 766 121 

14 59 24 

55 742 968 

442 

19 53 64 

86 350 888 

14 66 89 

56 181 887 

443 

19 62 49 

86 938 307 

14 74 56 

56 623 104 

444 

19 71 36 

87 528 284 

14 82 25 

56 066 625 

445 

19 80 25 

88 121 125 

14 89 96 

57 512 456 

446 

19 89 16 

88 716 536 

14 97 69 

57 960 603 

447 

20 98 09 

89 314 623 

]5 05 44 

58 411 072 

418 

20 07 04 

89 915 392 

15 13 21 

58 863 869 

449 

20 16 01 

yu olS 3-ty 

15 21 00 

59 319 000 

450 

20 25 00 

91 125 000 

15 28 81 

59 776 471 

451 

20 34 01 

91 733 151 

15 36 64 

60 236 288 

452 

20 43 04 

92 345 408 

15 44 49 

60 698 457 

453 

20 52 09 

92 959 677 

15 52 38 

61 162 934 

451 

20 61 16 

93 576 064 

15 60 25 

61 629 875 

455 

20 70 25 

94 19b 61 5 

15 68 16 

62 (99 136 

456 

20 79 36 

94 8(8 816 

15 76 09 

62 570 773 

457 

20 88 49 

95 143 993 

15 84 04 

63 044 792 

458 

21 97 64 

96 071 912 

15 92 01 

63 521 199 

459 

21 06 81 

96 7''2 579 

16 00 00 

64 000 000 

460 

21 16 00 

97 3.36 000 

16 08 01 

64 481 201 

461 

21 25 21 

97 972 181 

16 61 04 

64 964 808 

462 

21 31 44 

98 Gil 128 

16 24 09 

65 450 827 

463 

21 43 69 

99 252 847 

16 32 16 

65 939 264 

464 

21 62 96 

99 897 314 

16 40 25 

66 430 125 

465 

21 62 25 

100 554 625 

16 48 36 

66 923 416 

466 

21 71 56 

101 194 696 

16 56 49 

67 419 143 

467 

21 80 89 

J01 847 863 

16 64 64 

67 917 321 

468 

| 21 90 24 

102 503 232 


399 























TABLE OF SQUARES AND CUBES —Concluded. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

No. 

Squares. • 

Cubes. 

469 

21 99 61 

103 161 7u9 

485 

23 52 25 

114 084 125 

470 

22 09 00 

103 823 000 

486 

23 61 96 

114 791 256 

471 

22 18 41 

104 487 111 

487 

23 71 69 

115 501 303 

472 ' 

22 27 84 

105 154 048 

488 

23 81 44 

116 214 572 

473 

22 37 29 

105 823 817 

489 

23 91 21 

116 930 169 

474 

22 46 76 

106 496 424 

490 

24 01 00 

117 649 000 

475 

22 56 25 

107 171 875 

491 

24 10 81 

118 370 771 

476 

22 65 76 

107 850 176 

492 

24 20 61 

119 095 488 

477 

22 75 29 

108 531 333 

493 

24 30 49 

119 823 157 

473 

22 84 84 

109 215 352 

494 

24 40 36 

120 553 784 

479 

22 94 41 

109 902 239 

495 

24 50 25 

121 287 375 

480 

23 04 00 

110 592 000 

496 

24 60 16 

122 023 936 

481 

23 13 61 

111 284 641 

497 

24 70 09 

122 763 473 

482 

23 23 24 

111 980 168 

498 

24 80 04 

123 505 992 

483 

23 32 89 

112 678 587 

499 

24 90 01 

124 251 499 

484 

23 42 56 

113 379 904 

500 

25 00 00 

125 000 000 


LENGTH OF CIRCULAR ARC. 

Huygens’ approximation to length of a circular arc: 
A t== Chord of any circular arc. 

B = Chord of half that arc. 

R = Radius of the circular arc. 

L = Length of the circular arc. 

Then l _ 8 B — A 

3 

Or, as it is usually written, 

L = 2B + K(2B-A). 


WEDDING ANNIVERSARIES. 

First, cotton; second, paper; third, leather; fifth, wooden; 
seventh, woolen; tenth, tin; twelfth, silk and fine linen; fifteenth, 
crystal; twentieth, china; twenty-fifth, silver; thirtieth, pearl; 
fortieth, ruby; fiftieth, golden; seventy-fifth, diamond. 

YOUR BIRTHDAY. 

Born on Monday, fair in face; 

Born on Tuesday, full of God’s grace; 

Born on Wednesday, the best to be had; 

Born on Thursday, merry and glad; 

Born on Friday, worthily given; 

Born on Saturday, work hard for a living; 

Born on Sunday, shall never know want. 

An indenture is a deed or instrument in writing. Originally 

such writings were made in duplicate upon a sheet of paper which was afterwards 
indented or cut apart in a waved or notched line. One piece was given to each of 
the parties to the contract, and when the two were put together they would, of 
course, fit into each other exactly. This mode of indenture has passed out of use 
but the term survives. 

400 

















NATURAL SINES, ETC. 


II ‘ S3(I 1 

Sine. 

Cover. 

Cosecnt. 

Tangt. 

Cotang. 

Secant. 

Versin, 

Cosin. 

Deg. 

‘ 0 

.00 

1.00000 

Infinite. 

.0 

Infinite. 

1.00000 

.0 

1 00000 

90 

1 

.01745 

.98254 

57.2986 

.01745 

57.2899 

1.00015 

.0001 

.99984 

89 

2 

•0o489 

.96510 

28.6537 

.03492 

28.6362 

1.00060 

.0006 

.99939 

88 

3 

•05233 

.94766 

19.1073 

.05240 

19.0811 

1.00137 

.0013 

.99862 

87 

4 

.06975 

.93024 

14.3355 

.06992 

14.3006 

1.00244 

.0024 

.99756 

86 

5 

.08715 

.91284 

11.4737 

.08748 

11.4300 

1.00381 

.0038 

.99619 

85 

6 

.10452 

.89547 

9.5667 

.10510 

9.5143 

1.00550 

.0054 

.99452 

84 

7 

.12136 

.87813 

8.2055 

.12278 

8.1443 

1.00750 

.0074 

.99254 

83 

8 

.13917 

.85082 

7.1852 

.14054 

7.1153 

1.00982 

.0097 

.99026 

82 

9 

.15643 

.84356 

6.3924 

.15838 

6.3137 

1.01246 

.0123 

.98768 

81 

10 

.11364 

.82635 

5.7587 

.17632 

5.6712 

1.01542 

.0151 

.98480 

80 

11 

.19080 

.80919 

5.2408 

.19438 

5.1445 

1.01871 

.0183 

.98162 

79 

12 

.20791 

.79208 

4.8097 

.21255 

4.7046 

1.02234 

.0218 

.97814 

78 

13 

.22495 

.77504 

4.4454 

.23086 

4.3314 

1.02630 

.0256 

.97437 

77 

14 

.24192 

.75807 

4.1335 

.24932 

4.0107 

1.03061 

.0297 

,97029 

76 

15 

.25881 

.74118 

3.8637 

.26794 

3.7320 

1.03527 

,0340 

.96592 

75 

16 

.27563 

.72436 

3.6279 

.28674 . 

3.4874 

1.04029 

.0387 

.96126 

74 

17 

.29237 

.70762 

3.4203 

.30573 

3.2708 

1.04569 

.0436 

.95630 

73 

18 

.30901 

.69098 

3.2360 

.32491 

3.0776 

1.05146 

.0489 

.95105 

72 

19 

.32556 

.67443 

3.0715 

.34432 

2.9042 

1.05762 

.0544 

.94551 

71 

20 

.34202 

.65797 

2.9238 

.36397 

2.7474 

1.06417 

.0603 

.93969 

70 

21 

.35836 

.64163 

2-7904 

.38386 

2.6050 

1.07114 

.0664 

.93358 

69 

22 

.37460 

.62539 

2.6694 

.40402 

2.4750 

1.07853 

.0728 

.92718 

68 

23 

.39073 

.60926 

2.5593 

.42447 

2.3558 

1.08636 

.0794 

.92050 

67 

24 

.40673 

.59326 

2.4585 

.44522 

2.2460 

1.09463 

.0864 

.91354 

66 

25 

.42261 

.57738 

2.3662 

.46630 

2.1445 

1.10337 

.0936 

.90630 

65 

26 

.43837 

.56162 

2.2811 

.48773 

2.0503 

1.11260 

.1012 

.89879 

64 

27 

.45399 

.54600 

2.2026 

.50952 

1.9626 

1.12232 

,1089 

.89100 

63 

28 

.46947 

.53052 

2.1300 

.53170 

1.8807 

1.13257 

.1170 

.88294 

62 

29 

.48480 

.51519 

2.0626 

.55430 

1.8040 

1.14335 

.1253 

.87461 

61 

30 

.50000 

.50000 

2.0000 

.57735 

1.7320 

1.15470 

.1339 

.86602 

60 

31 

.51503 

.48496 

1.9416 

.60086 

1.6642 

1.16663 

.1428 

.85716 

59 

32 

.52991 

.47008 

1.8870 

.62486 

1.6003 

1.17917 

.1519 

.84804 

58 

33 

.54463 

.45536 

1.8360 

.64940 

1.5398 

1.19236 

.1613 

.83867 

57 

34 

.55919 

.44080 

1.1882 

.67450 

1.4825 

1.20621 

.1709 

.82903 

56 

35 

.57357 

.42642 

1.7434 

.70020 

1.4281 

1.22077 

.1808 

.81915 

55 

36 

.58778 

.41221 

1.7013 

.72654 

1.3763 

1.23606 

.1909 

.80901 

54 

37 

.60181 

.39318 

1.6616 

.75355 

1.3270 

1.25213 

.2013 

.79863 

53 

38 

.61566 

.38433 

1.6242 

.78128 

1.2799 

1.26901 

.2119 

.78801 

52 

39 

.62932 

.37067 

1.5890 

.80978 

1.2348 

1.28675 

.2228 

.77714 

51 

40 

.64278 

.35721 

1.5557 

.83909 

1.1917 

1.30540 

.2339 

.76604 

50 

41 

.65605 

.34394 

1.5242 

.86928 

1.1503 

1.32501 

.2452 

.75470 

49 

42 

.66913 

.33086 

1.4944 

.90040 

1.1106 

1.34563 

.2568 

.74314 

48 

43 

.68199 

.31800 

1.4662 

.93251 

1.0723 

1.36732 

.2686 

.73135 

47 

44 

.69465 

.30534 

1.4395 

.96568 

1.0355 

1.39016 

.2806 

.71933 

46 

45 

.70710 

.29289 

1.4142 

1.00000 

1.0000 

1.41421 

.2928 

.70710 

45 


Cosin. 

Versin. 

Secant. 

Cotang. 

Tangt. 

Cosecnt. 

Cover. 

Sine, 



The term bankrupt originated in connection with the money¬ 
changers of Italy. They sat in the market-place with their money displayed on a, 
bench (or banc, as it was called) before them. When one of these financial gentle¬ 
men failed his banc (or bench) was said to be broken, and he was styled a bank¬ 
rupt. The modern bank inherits its name from the unitnposing money-bench 
(banc) of mediaeval Italy. 


401 












































Useful Information for Printers and Publishers, 


Standard Newspaper Measure. 

The standard newspaper measure, as recognized and now in 
general use, is 13 ems pica. The standard of measurement of 
all sizes of type is the em quad, not the letter m. 

Leads and Slugs. 

Leads are designated as “—to-pica,” the number being that 
fraction of a pica which the lead is, viz.: a 6 -to-pica lead is one- 
sixth of a pica in thickness, or six 6 -to-pica’s are equal to one 
pica; four 4 -to-pica’s one pica, and so with other sizes or thick¬ 
nesses of leads. 

Slugs —“Leads” of nonpareil thickness and greater are called 
slugs, viz.: nonpareil slugs, brevier slugs, pica slugs, etc. 

Average Weight of Matter. 

A “piece” of solid matter 13 ems pica wide and 6 inches long 
will weigh about 3 % lbs., but, in order to allow for the sorts 
usually remaining in case, 4 % lbs. of type would be required to 
set that amount of solid matter. When the matter is to be leaded 
the weight of the type ma} r be reduced about one-quarter, i. e ., a 
single column of six-column folio, solid, will weigh 10 % lbs., re¬ 
quiring about 13 lbs. of type, while the same length column, 
leaded with 6 -to-pica leads, will contain but 7 % lbs. solid matter, 
requiring about 10 lbs. of type to set the same. 

Example —A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto 
( 13 x 19 %) contains 256 % square inches of matter: 

256 %X 4 /' 8 -i “ I 3 (square inches of 4% lbs. of type) = 86 —(—, 
the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of mat¬ 
ter, including sorts in case. 

How to Estimate for Body Type. 

To estimate the quantity of type (solid) necessary to fill a 
given space, multiply the number of square inches by 5 % (esti¬ 
mated weight, in ounces, of one square inch of matter, including 
sorts in case) divide the product by 16 , and the result will be the 
weight of type required. If leaded, a reduction in weight of 
type may be made as above. 

Example —A single page of regular six-column folio or quarto 
( 13 x 19 %) contains 256 % square inches of matter: 

2 5 6 MX5^- 4 - i6=86 +> 

the number of pounds of type required to set that amount of 
matter, including sorts in case. 

Miscellaneous Information. 


The following table gives the number of “ems” in a space 
6 x 13 ems pica, also the average number of “ems” in 4 ounces: 


Number of Ems in 

Pearl 

Agate 

No’pi 

Min’n 

Brev*r 

Bourg 

Lg. Pr 

Sm. Pi 

Pica 

■6x13 Ems Pica. 

449% 

368% 

312 

230% 

177 

138% 

112% 

92 

78 

4 Ounces. 

196 

165 

132 

100 

78 

61 

51 

43 

35 


402 






















Newspaper Measurement* 

Table showing the number of ems of the different sizes of 
newspaper type in a line, the number of lines necessary to make 
1,000 ems, and the length in inches. Also the number of ems 
in the regular lengths of columns: 


13 Ems Pica, 

6 £ 

<3 « 

c E 

> «* 

•5 s 

£ 0 c a 

otaa 

III 

.2 00 
otO 

J° o' 

oro 

.2-3 

0 

^2 0 

00 

WIDTH OF 

Wa 


c W 

Em a3 rv; S3 

*3 a 

*3 a 


fe a 


Standard Column. 

d a 

d § 

■ 0 


■3<*j 5 

■s<y m 

o^i 

0 2 

■s 2 

Z'~ 

Z ° 

O 0 
Z H 

ogfc a 

0 g a 

•0 0 w 

° *. 6 
to OB 


0 a 

QOW 

0 a 

<r=H 

Agate. 

28% 

35 % 

2 : % 

5,040 

6,505 

7,180 

7,900 

8,630 

9,310 

Nonpareil. 

26 

38% 

3% 

4,325 

5,615 

6,160 

6.785 

7,410 

8,020 

Minion . 

22% 

45 


3,175 

4,115 

4,515 

4,970 

5,440 

5,885 

Brevier. 

19% 

5134 

5% 

2.465 

3,200 

3,510 

3,865 

4,220 

4,575 

Bourgeois. 

17%<57% 

7 k 

1,950 

2,525 

2,770 

3,050 

3,330 

3,615 

Long Primer. 

15% 

164% 

9 

1.610 

2,085 

2,290 

2,520 

2,755 

2,970 


Leads for Newspapers. 

Table showing the number of leads, 13 ems pica long, con¬ 
tained in one pound, and the number required to lead 1,000 ems 
of matter; together with the number of leads in a single col¬ 
umn of matter, regular sizes of newspapers: 


Size of Body Type 
to be Leaded with 
6-to-Pica Leads. 

No. Leads 
to pound. 

No. Leads 

1,000 Ems. 

4 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 
Column. 

5 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 1 
Leads in 

1 Column. | 

16 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 

1 Column. 

7 Col. Fol. 
or Quarto. 
Leads in 
Column. 

8 Col. Fol. 
Leads in 

C olumn. 

9 Col. Fol. 

Leads in 

Column. 

Agate. 

60 

26 

132 

170 

185 

206 

224 

241 

Nonpareil. 

60 

29 

125 

162 

179 

197 

215 

233 

Minion.. 

60 

34 

108 

140 

154 

169 

185 

201 

Brevier. 

60 

40 

99 

123 

141 

155 

169 

183 

Bourgeois. 

60 

45 

88 

114 

125 

138 

150 

163 

Long Primer. 

CO 

52 

84 

108 

119 

131 

143 

154 


Book Work Measurement. 

Table showing the number of ems to a line, and the number 
of lines contained in 1,000 ems of matter, standard book meas¬ 
ure. Also, the space, in inches, filled by 1,000 ems of matter of 
the different measures: 


Size of Type. 

21 Ems Pica. 

23 Ems Pica. 

25 Ems Pica. 

is 

z-s 

tfl vf 

S s 
;!« 

0 8 

£ H 

No. Inch’s 

1,000 Ems. 

(A . 

E g 

“a 

|.s 

No. Lines 
1,000 Ems. 

No. Inch’s 

1,000 Ems. 

6 £ 
W;S 

l* 

<G g 

c E 

di 

Z H* 

No. Inch’s 

1,000 Ems. 

Nonpareil. 

Brevier. 

Long Primer. 

Small Pica. 

Pica. 

42 
31% 
25 % 
23 

21 

24 

32% 

31% 

43% 

48 

2 

3% 

5% 

6% 

8 

46 

35 

27% 

25 

23 

IS 

36 

40 

43% 

1% 

3% 

5 

6% 

7% 

50 

37% 

80 

27% 

25 

20 

26% 

33% 

36 % 

40 

1% 

3 

4% 

5% 


403 












































































Leads for Book Work. 


Number of 4 -to-pica and 6 -to-pica leads, standard book 
measures, contained in one pound, and number required to lead 
1,000 ems of matter of the standard sizes of book type: 


25 EMS. 

23 EMS. 

21 EMS. 

The columns of figures on the right 
give the number of leads required 
to lead 1,000 ems of matter of the 
sizes of type named. Those on 
the left, the number of leads in 
one pound. 

Nonpareil. 

U 

V 

'> 

a 

M 

V 

s 

* n 

p~i 

bi 

t-I 

Small Pica. 

Pica. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 

No. 

Leads to 
Pound. 




> 

| ( 21 Ems P’a long 

17 

25 

33 

36 

41 

31 

34 

37 


^ 4 -to-Pica. ..-f 23 “ 

it it 

15 

23 

30 

34 

37 





f (25 “ 

it H 

13 

21 

27 

32 

33 





I (21 “ 

if it 

16 

23 

30 

S3 

39 

21 

23 

25 


> 6 -to-Pica...< 23 “ 

it a 

14 

21 

27 

31 

35 




J 

1 (25 “ 

a a 

12 

19 

25 

28 

31 


Sizes of Newspapers. 


TERM. 

Five-column 

Six-column 

Six column 

Seven-column 

Seven-column 

Eight-column 

Nine-column 

Four-column 

Five-column 

Six-coiumn 

Seven-column 


Folio 
Folio - 

Folio, extra margin 
Folio - 

Folio, extra margin 

Folio - 

Folio 

Quarto 

Quarto - 

Quarto 

Quarto - 


SIZE. 

20 x 26 inches 

- 22 x 31 inches 
22 x 32 inches 

- 24 x 35 inches 
24 x 36 inches 

- 26 x 40 inches 
28 x 44 inches 

- 22 x 31 inches 
26 x 40 inches 

- 30 x 44 inches 
35 x 48 inches 


Common Sizes of Flat Papers. 


Flat Letter 
Small Cap 
Flat Cap - 
Demy - 
Folio 


10 x 16 

13 x 16 

14 x 17 

16 x 21 

17 x 22 


NAME. 

Medium 

Double Small Cap 
Royal - 
Double Cap 


18 x 23 
16 x 26 

19 x 24 
17x28 


MEASUREMENT BY SQUARE INCHES. 


With the following table the printer dispenses entirely with a 
type measure proper, resorting to the common inch rule. After 
getting the square inches in his job, he may take the figures 
directly from the table, or, if the square inches are in excess of 
the table, add two or more of the numbers together; as, for 
instance, 79 square inches of brevier, the seventh line gives 567 
ems for 7 inches, add a cipher and you have 5,670 ems for 70 

404 






























SQUAEE-INCH TTPE MEASUREMENT. 


inches, and in the ninth line add 729 ems to the 5,670 ems, and 
you have a total of 6,399 ems * n 79 square inches. 

NUMBER OF EMS IN SQUARE INCHES. 

(Adapted to the Point System.) 



Pica. 

Small 

Pica. 

Long 

Primer 

Bour¬ 

geois. 

Brevier. 

Minion. 

N onpa- 
reil. 

1 square inch. . 

36 

44 

52 

64 

81 

106 

144 

2 

41 

inches. 

72 

88 

104 

128 

162 

212 

288 

3 



108 

132 

156 

192 

243 

318 

432 

4 



144 

176 

208 

256 

324 

424 

576 

5 



180 

220 

260 

320 

405 

530 

720 

6 

ti 


216 

264 

312 

384 

486 

636 

864 

7 



252 

308 

364 

448 

567 

7*2 

1008 

8 

it 


288 

352 

416 

512 

648 

848 

1152 

9 

it 


324 

396 

468 

576 

729 

954 

1296 

10 

it 


360 

440 

520 

640 

810 

1060 

144) 

11 

i i 

44 

396 

484 

572 

704 

891 

1166 

1584 

12 

• « 


432 

528 

624 

768 

972 

1272 

1728 

13 

• 4 

44 

468 

572 

676 

832 

1053 

1378 

1872 

14 

44 


504 

616 

728 

896 

1134 

1484 

2016 

15 

44 

44 

540 

660 

780 

960 

1215 

1590 

2160 

16 

44 


576 

704 

832 

1024 

1296 

1696 

2304 

17 

44 

44 

612 

748 

884 

1088 

1377 

1802 

2442 

18 

44 

4 ( 

648 

792 

936 

1152 

1458 

1908 

2592 

19 

44 

44 

684 

803 

988 

1216 

1539 

2014 

2736 

20 

44 

44 

720 

880 

1040 

1280 

1620 

2120 

2880 

21 

44 

44 

756 

924 

1092 

1344 

1701 

2226 

3024 

22 

44 

44 

792 

968 

1144 

1408 

1782 

2332 

3168 

23 

44 

44 

828 

1012 

1196 

1472 

1863 

2438 

3312 

24 

44 

44 

864 

1056 

1248 

1536 

1944 

2544 

3456 

25 

44 

44 

900 

1100 

1300 

1600 

2025 

2650 

3600 

26 

44 

44 

936 

1144 

1352 

1664 

2106 

2756 

3744 

27 

44 

44 

972 

1188 

1404 

1728 

2187 

2862 

3888 

28 

<4 

44 

1008 

1232 

1456 

1792 

2268 

2968 

4032 

29 

44 

44 

1044 

1276 

1508 

1856 

2349 

3074 

4176 

30 

44 

44 

1080 

1320 

1560 

1920 

2430 

3180 

4320 

31 

44 

44 

1116 

1364 

1612 

1984 

2511 

3286 

4464 

32 

44 

44 

1152 

1408 

1664 

2048 

2592 

3392 

4608 

33 

44 

44 

1188 

1452 

1716 

2112 

2673 

3498 

4752 

34 

44 

44 

1224 

1496 

1768 

2176 

2754 

3604 

4896 

35 

44 

44 

1260 

1540 

1820 

2240 

2835 

3710 

5040 

36 

44 

44 

1296 

1584 

1872 

2304 

2916 

3816 

5184 

37 

44 

4 4 

1332 

1628 

1924 

2368 

2997 

3922 

5328 

38 

44 

44 

1368 

lb72 

1976 

2432 

3078 

4028 

5472 

39 

44 

44 

1404 

1716 

2028 

2496 

3159 

4134 

5616 

40 

44 

44 

1440 

1760 

2080 

2560 

3240 

4240 

5760 

41 

44 

44 

1476 

1804 

2132 

2624 

8321 

4346 

5904 

42 

44 

44 

1512 

1848 

2184 

2688 

3402 

4452 

6048 

43 

44 

44 

1548 

1892 

2236 

2752 

3483 

4558 

6192 

44 

44 

• 4 

1584 

1936 

2288 

2816 

3564 

4664 

6336 

45 

44 

44 

1620 

1980 

2340 

2880 

3645 

4770 

6480 

46 

44 

44 

1656 

2024 

2392 

2944 

3726 

4876 

6624 

47 

44 

44 

1692 

2068 

2144 

3(08 

3-07 

4982 

6768 

48 

44 

44 

1728 

2112 

2496 

3072 

3888 

5088 

6912 

49 

44 

44 

1764 

2156 

2548 

3136 

3969 

5194 

7056 

50 

44 

44 

1800 

2200 

2600 

3200 

4050 

5300 

7200 


405 
























SIZES OF BOOK AND PRINT PAPERS. 

TO FIND WEIGHT OF A GIVEN SIZE TO CORRESPOND WITH BULK OF SAMPLE. 

Rule —To find weight required for a given size to correspond in thickness with a 
given sample, multiply the weight of sample by the dimensions of sheet required, 
and divide by the product of the dimensions of sample. The table below gives all 
the regular sizes: 


Size and Weight 
of Sample. 

ci 

CO 

X 

CM 

CM 

CD 

CO 

X 

0 $ 

$ 

X 

10 

CM 

O 

T* 

X 

CD 

CM 

CM 

1 X 

83 

O 

X 

O 

CO 

CO 

X 

0 

Tf< 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

LBS. 

22x32— 25 

— 

31 

34 

37 

42 

43 

68 

30 

— 

37 

40 

44 

50 

51 

82 

35 

— 

43 

47 

52 

58 

60 

95 

40 

— 

49 

54 

59 

67 

68 

109 

24x36— 30 

24 

_ 

33 

36 

41 

42 

67 

35 

29 

— 

38 

42 

48 

49 

78 

40 

33 

— 

44 

48 

54 

56 

89 

45 

37 

— 

49 

54 

61 

62 

100 

50 

41 

' — 

55 

60 

68 

69 

111 

60 

49 

— 

66 

72 

82 

83 

133 

25x38— 35 

26 

32 

_ 

38 

43 

44 

71 

40 

30 

36 

— 

44 

50 

51 

81 

50 

37 

45 

— 

55 

62 

63 

101 

60 

44 

55 

— 

66 

74 

76 

121 

70 

52 

64 

— 

77 

87 

88 

141 

80 

59 

73 

— 

88 

99 

101 

162 

28x42— 40 

24 

29 

32 

35 

_ 

41 

65 

45 

27 

33 

36 

40 

— 

46 

73 

50 

30 

37 

40 

44 

— 

51 

82 

60 

36 

44 

48 

53 

— 

61 

98 

70 

42 

51 

57 

62 

— 

71 

114 

80 

48 

59 

65 

71 

— 

82 

131 

90 

54 

66 

74 

80 

— 

92 

147 

100 

60 

74 

82 

88 

— 

102 

163 

30x40— 40 

23 

29 

32 

35 

39 

_ 

64 

50 

29 

36 

40 

43 

49 

_ 

80 

60 

35 

43 

48 

52 

59 

_ 

96 

70 

41 

50 

55 

61 

69 

_ 

112 

80 

47 

58 

63 

69 

78 

_ 

128 

90 

53 

65 

71 

78 

88 

_ 

144 

100 

59 

72 

79 

87 

98 

— 

160 


For 32 x 44 (which is just double 22 x 32 ) multiply the figures of 22 x 32 by 2 . Like¬ 
wise 38 x 50 is double 25 x 38 , etc. For odd sizes proceed as per rule above. 


406 





























WEATHER FORECASTS 


Almanac predictions can be nothing but conjecture, the 
earth’s subjection to many unknowable and undeterminable 
forces rendering such calculations impossible. It is practicable, 
however, by the following rules, drawn from actual results 
during very many years and applied with due regard to the sub¬ 
jects of solar and lunar attraction with reference to this 
planet, to foresee the kind of weather most likely to follow the 
moon’s change of phase. 

PROGNOSTICATIONS. 


If New Moon First Qr., Full 
Moon or Last Qr. happens 

In Summer. 

In Winter. 

Between midnight and 2 a.m. 

Fair. 

Frost, unless wind is S. W. 

44 

2 

" 4 “ 

Cold and showers. 

Snow and btormy. 

4 4 

4 

" 6 “ 

Rain. 

Rain. 

4 4 

6 

“ 8 “ 

Wind and rain... 

Stormy. 

44 

8 

“ 10 “ 

Changeable. 

Cold rain if wind W., snow if 

44 

10 

" 12 “ 

Frequent showers. 

Cold and high wind. [E. 

4 4 

12 

“ 2 P M. 

Very rainy . 

Snow or rain. 

14 

2 

<< 4 << 

Changeable. 

Fair and mild. 

44 

4 

« 6 « 

Fair. 

Fair. [E. 

44 

6 

" 8 “ 

Fair if wind N. W .... 

Fair and frosty if wind N.orN. 

4 4 

8 

“ 10 “ 

Rainy if S. or S. W... 

Rain or snow if S. or S. W. 

44 

10 

“ midn’t. 

Fair. 

Fair and frosty. 


Observations. —i. The nearer the moon’s change, first quarter, full and last 
uarter to midnight, the fairer will be the weather duririg the next seven days. 

2 . The space for this calculation occupies from ten at night till two next morning. 

3 . The nearer to midday or noon the phase of the moon happens, the more foul 
or wet weather maybe expected during the next seven days. 

4 The space for this calculation occupies from ten in the forenoon to two in the 
afternoon. These observations refer principally to summer, though they affect 

spring and autumn in the same ratio. . 

5 . The moon’s change, first quarter, full and last quarter happening during six 
of the afternoon hours i. e., from four to ten, may be followed by fair weather, but 
this is mostly dependent on the wind as is noted in the table. _ . 

6 Though the weather, from a variety of irregular causes,is more uncertain in the 

latter part of autumn, the whole of winter and the beginning of spring, yet, in the 
main, the above observations will apply to these periods also. . 

7 To prognosticate correctly, especially in those cases where the wind is con¬ 
cerned, the observer should be within sight of a vane where the four cardinal 
points of the compass are correctly placed. 


Men must’learn that in this theater of man’s life it is reserved 

only for God and the angels to be lookers-on.—L ord Bacon. 

“Old men for council, young men for war,” is the motto on 
which a Senate is constituted. When Rome was sacked by the Gauls the Senate 
thought it unbecoming in their body to withdraw with the rest of the population 
So thev sat at their several thresholds, and calmly awaited the end 1 he barbarians 
were amazed at the white-bearded figures and regarded them at first with some awe. 
Gradually they dared to stroke their beards and pass their hands over their bodies. 
At length finding that they were but mortal men they destroyed them. The Con¬ 
stitution of the United States recognizes the importance of age in limiting eligibility 
to the Senate to those who have reached the age of thirty years. 

407 

























WEATHER FORECASTS. 


Certain phenomena in the air and peculiarities of birds have 
long been known to indicate a change in the weather. Many 
years ago the learned Dr. Jenner embodied these in verse, in re¬ 
ply to an invitation from a friend with whom he had planned an 
excursion the following day. It embodies about all that is 
known to-day upon that branch of the subject, and we repro¬ 
duce it as being reasonably correct: 

The hollow winds begin to blow. 

The clouds look black, the glass is low; 

The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep. 

And spiders from their cobwebs peep. 

Last night the sun went pale to bed. 

The moon in halos hid her head; 

The boding shepherd heaves a sigh. 

For, see, a rainbow spans the sky; 

The walls are damp, the ditches smell, 

Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel. 

Hark! how the chairs and tables crack. 

Old Betty’sjoints are on the rack; 

Loud quack the ducks, the peacocks cry. 

The distant hills are looking nigh. 

How restless are the snorting swine. 

The busy flies disturb the kine; 

Low o’er the grass the swallow wings; 

The cricket, too, how sharp he sings; 

Puss, on the hearth, with velvet paws. 

Sits, wiping o’er her whiskered jaws. 

Through the clear stream the fishes rise. 

And nimbly catch th’ incautious flies; 

The glow-worms, numerous and bright. 

Illum’d the dewy dell last night. 

At dusk the squalid toad was seen, 

Hopping and crawling o’er the green; 

The whirling wind the dust obeys. 

And in the rapid eddy plays; 

The frog has changed his yellow vest. 

And in a russet coat is dressed. 

Though June, the air is cold and still; 

The blackbird’s mellow voice is shrill. 

My dog, so alter’d is his taste, 

Quits mutton bones, on grass to feast; 

And see yon rooks, how odd their flight. 

They imitate the gliding kite. 

And seem precipitate to fall— 

As if they feltthe piercing ball. 

’Twill surely rain. I see with sorrow. 

Our jaunt must be put off tomorrow. 

The most dreadful earthquake on record is that which, 

November i, 1775 , destroyed the city of Lisbon, Portugal. The only warning the 
inhabitants received was a noise like subterranean thunder, which, without any 
considerable interval, was followed by a succession of shocks which laid in ruins 
almost every building in the city, with a most incredible slaughter of the inhabitants 
( 60 , 000 ). 1 he bed of the river Tagus was in many places raised to the surface, and 

vessels on the river suddenly found themselves aground. The waters of the river 
and the sea at first retreated and then immediately rolled violently in upon the 
land, forming a wave over forty feet in elevation. To complete the destruction a 
large quay, upon which great numbers of the people had assembled for security, 
suddenly sank to such an unfathomable depth that not one body ever afterwards 
appeared at the surface. f4081 



SHOEMAKERS’ MEASURE. 
Small Sizes —No. 1. 4 l-8th in. 


L—3d = 4 ll-24th in. 


-3d 4- l-3d = 419-24th in. 


No. 2. 4 l-8th in. 4- 14 
No. 3. 4 l-8th in. -j- 14 
Etc., etc., etc. 

Large Sizes —No. 1. 8 11-24 in. 

No. 2. 8 11-24 in. -J- l-3d == 8 19-24 in. 

No. 3. 8 11-24 in. 4- l-3d 4- l-3d = 9 l-8th in. 

No. 4. 8 11-24 in. -f- l-3d -j- l-3d l-3d = 9 11- 

24th in. Etc., etc., etc. 


WOMAN’S CHANCES OF MARRIAGE. 

This curiously constructed exhibit by Mr. Finlayson, a 
European statistician, is drawn up from the registered cases of 
i,ooo married women, taken without selection. Of the i,ooo 
tabulated there were married: 


Marriages. Years of Age. 

32 . 14 to 15 

Marriages. Years of Age. 

41 . v8 to 9.4 

lUl . 16 “ 17 

18 . 30 “ 81 

219 . 18 “ 19 

15 . 355 “ 33 

230 . 20 “ 21 

8 . 34 “ 85 

165 . . 22 “ 24 

4 . 36 “ 37 

102 . 24 “ 25 

2 . 38 “ 80 

60 . 26 “ 27 



The Days of the Week.— The names of these are de¬ 
rived from Saxon idolatry. The Saxons had seven deities more 
particularly adored than the rest, namely: The Sun, Moon, 
Tuisco, Woden, Thor, Friga and Seater. Sunday, being dedi¬ 
cated to the sun, was called by them Sunandaeg; his idol repre¬ 
sented the bust of a man, with the face darting bright rays, hold¬ 
ing a wheel before his breast, indicative of the circuit of the 
golden orb around our sphere. Monday was dedicated to the 
moon, and was represented by a female on a pedestal, with a very 
singular dress and two long ears. Tuesday was dedicated to Tuis¬ 
co, a German hero, sire of the Germans, Scythians and Saxons. 
He was represented as a venerable old man, with a long white 
beard, a scepter in his hand and the skin of a white bear thrown 
over his shoulders. Wednesday was consecrated to Woden, or 
Odin, a supreme god of the northern nations, father of the gods, 
god of war, of Mars. He was represented as a warrior in a 
bold martial attitude, clad in armor, holding in his right 
hand a broad, crooked sword and a shield in his 
left. Thursday was consecrated to Thor, eldest son of 
Woden, who was the Roman Jupiter. He was believed to 
govern the air, preside over lightning and thunder, direct the 
wind, rain and seasons. He was represented as sitting on a 
splendid throne, with a crown of gold adorned with twelve glit¬ 
tering stars, and a scepter in his right hand. Friday, or Friga, 
Hertha or Edith, was the mother of the gods and wife of 

409 



















THE MAYFLOWER'S PASSENGERS. 


Woden. She was the goddess of love and pleasure and was 
portrayed as a female with a naked sword in her right hand and 
bow in her left hand, implying that in extreme cases women 
should fight as well as men. Saturday, or Seater, is the same as 
the Roman Saturnus. He was represented on a pedestal, stand¬ 
ing on the back of a prickly fish called a perch, his head bare, 
with a thin, meager face. In his left hand he held a wheel and 
in his right a pail of water with fruits and flowers. The sharp 
fins of the fish implied that the worshipers of Seater should 
pass safely through every difficulty. The wheel was emble¬ 
matic of their unity and freedom, and the pail of water implied 
that he could water the earth and make it more beautiful. 


The Mayflower’s Passengers. 

The following is a true list of the male passengers landed at 
Plymouth in the Mayflower : 


Isaac Allerton. 
Jno. Alden. 
Jno. Allerton. 


Francis Eaton. 
Thomas English. 
Samuel Fuller. 


William Bradford. 4 John Howland. 
William Brewster. Stephen Hopkins. 

Edward Leister. 


John Billington. 

Peter Brown. 

Richard Britterage. 

John Carver. 

Francis Cook. 

James Chilton. 

John Crackston. 

Richard Clarke. 

Edward Dotey. 

Servants as follows : 
Carter. Hooke. 

Cooper. Langmore. 

Ely. Latham. 

Holbeck. Minter. 


John Goodman. 
Richard Gardiner. 
George Soule. 

Capt. Miles Standish. 
Edward Tilly. 

John Tilly. 


Christopher Martin. Thomas Tinker. 


William Mullins. 
Edmund Margeson. 
Degony Priest. 
Thomas Rogers. 
John Rigdale. 
Edward Fuller. 
Moses Fletcher. 


John Turner. 
Edward Winslow. 
William White. 
Richard Warren. 
Thomas Williams. 
Gilbert Winslow. 


More. 

Power. 

Sampson. 

Story. 


Thompson. 

Trevore. 

Wilder. 


The great Egyptian obelisk in Central Park, New York, is 

one of the most noted monoliths in the world. It was quarried, carved and erected 
about the time of Abraham to commemorate the deeds of an ancient Pharaoh. Five 
hundred years later the conquering Sesostris, the bad Pharaoh of Scripture, carved 
on its surface the record of his famous reign. The royal cartouch (or oval) shows 
that the work was done under the immediate order and sanction of the king. But 
Sesostris (or Rameses II.) reigned one hundred years before the Trojan war; so all 
the symbols now seen on Cleopatra’s Needle were already venerable with age in the 
days of Priam, Hector, Helen, Agamemnon. Achilles and Ulysses. The Roman 
poet Horace says there were brave men before Agamemnon, but they lacked a 
Homer to save their names from oblivion. Sesostris, however, was an exception. 
He escaped oblivion without the aid of a Homer. Homer’s heroes are to be con¬ 
gratulated above all men on having their story sung by such a minstrel; but with 
this thought there always goes a little doubt as to whether there ever were such heroes 
and such deeds outside of Homer’s imagination. The hard granite of the Egyptian 
mountains leaves no doubt that Sesostris lived and reigned. [410] 




WIND AND WEATHER SIGNALS. 


On March i, 1887, a new system of weather signals was intro¬ 
duced by the United States Signal Uffice of the War Department, and has since 
been in use at all the stations of the service. The flags adopted for this purpose are 
four in number, and of the form and dimensions indicated below: 


No. 1 . 

White Flag. 


Clear orfair 
weather. 


No. 2 . 


Blue Flag. 



Rain 
or snow. 


No. 3 . 

Black Triangular 
Flag. 



Temperature 

signal. 


No. 4 . 

White Flag with 
black square in 
center. 


Cold wave. 


Number i, white flag, six feet square, indicates clear or fair weather. Number 2 , 
blue flag, six feet square, indicates rain or snow. Number 3 , black triangular flag, 
four feet at the base and six feet in length, always refers to temperature; when 
placed above numbers 1 or 2 it indicates warmer weather; when placed below 
numbers 1 or 2 it indicates colder weather; when not displayed, the indications are 
that the temperature will remain stationary, 
or that the change in temperature will not 
vary five degrees from the temperature of the 
same hour of the preceding day. Number 4 , 
white flag, six feet square, with black square 
in center, indicates the approach of a sudden 
and decided fall in temperature. This signal 
is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours 
in advance of the cold wave. It is not dis¬ 
played unless a temperature of forty-five de¬ 
grees, or lower, is expected. When number 4 
is displayed, number 3 is always omitted. 

When displayed on poles, the signals are 
arranged to read downward; when displayed 
from horizontal supports, a small streamer is 
attached to indicate the point from which the 
signals are to be read. 

Interpretation of Displays. 

No. 1 , alone, indicates fair weather, station¬ 
ary temperature. 

No. 2 , alone, indicates rain or snow, station¬ 
ary temperature. 

No. 1 , with No. 3 below it, indicates fair 
weather, colder. 

No. 2 , with No. 3 above it, indicates warmer 


Example. 



Cold wave, fol¬ 
lowed by rain 
or sncnv, suc¬ 
ceeded by fair 
weather; 
colder. 


Example. 


BLUE. 


Warmer, 
fair 
weather, 
followed 
by rain or 
snow. 


weather, rain or snow. 

No 1. with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, cold wave. 

No. 3 , with Nos. 1 and 2 below it, indicates warmer, fair weather, followed by rain 
or snow. 


Storm, Cautionary and Wind-Direction Signals. 

A red flag with a black center indicates that the storm is expected to be ot 
marked violence. A yellow flag with a white center indicates that the winds ex¬ 
pected will not be so severe, but well-found; seaworthy vessels can meet them 
without danger. The red pennant indicates easterly winds; that is, from Aenorth- 
east to south inclusive, and that generally the storm center is approaching. If 

411 





































WIND AND WEAtHER SIGNALS. 


above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast quadrant are more probable; 
below, winds from southeast quadrant. The white pennant indicates westerly 
winds; that is, from north, to southwest inclusive, and‘that generally the storm 
center has passed. If above cautionary or storm-signal, winds from northeast 
quadrant are more probable; if below, winds from southwest quadrant. 



Red, Black 
Center. 


Storm. 


White Pennant. 


Westerly Winds. 


Yellow, White 
Center. 


Red Pennant. 


Easterly winds. 


Cautionary. 


Time Difference Between the City of New York and the Principal 

Foreign Cities. 




FASTER THAN N. Y. 




H. M. 


H. M. 


H. M. 

Antwerp. 

5 13 

Dublin__ 

. 4 31 

Melbourne.... 

9 14 

Berlin. 

5 50 

Edinburgh 

. 4 43 

Paris. 

5 02 

Bremen. 

5 31 

Geneva.... 

• 5 21 

Rio de Janeiro 2 03 

Brussels. 

5 14 

Hamburg.. 

. 5 30 

Rome. 

5 40 

Buenos Ayres. 

1 02 

Liverpool.. 

. 4 44 

St. Petersburg. 

6 57 

Calcutta. 

10 50 

London ... 

. 4 5(3 

Valparaiso.... 

10 

Constantinople 6 53 

Madrid.... 

. 4 42 

Vienna. 

6 01 


SLOWER THAN N. Y. 

H. M. 

Canton.H 31 

Havana. 33 

Hong Kong.. .11 27 
Mexico, City of ] 40 

Panama. 12 

Vera Cruz. 1 29 

Yokohama.... 10 45 


Actual New York mean time is given. 


The Climates of the United States. 

Mean annual temperature, Fahrenheit, at places named. 


Alabama. 

Mobile. 

Alaska. 

Sitka. 

Arizona ..... 

Tucson..... 

Arkansas. 

Little Rock. 

California. 

San Francisco.. 

Colorado .. 

Denver. 

Connecticut. 

Hartford. 

Dakota. 

Fort Randall.... 

Delaware. 

WillminpUon. 

Dist. Columbia .. 

Washington. 

Florida. 

Jacksonville. 

Georgia. 

Atlanta. 

Idaho. 

Fort Boise. 

Illinois .. 

Springfield. 

Indiana. 

Indianapolis .... 

Indian Territory. 

Fort Gibson. 

Iowa. 

Des Moines. 

Kansas. 

Leavenworth .... 

Kentucky. 

Louisville. 

Louisiana. 

New Orleans .... 

Maine. 

Augusta. 

Maryland. 

Baltimore. 

Massachusetts... 

Boston. 

Michigan. 

Detroit.... 

Minnesota. 

St. Paul. 


66 ° 

46 

69 

63 

55 

Mississippi. 

Jackson . 

Missouri. 

St. Louis. 

M ontana. 

Helena. 

Nebraska. 

Omaha. 

Nevada. 

C’p Winfi’ld Scott 

48 

New Hampshire 

Concord.... 

50 

47 

New J ersey. 

Trenton. 

New Mexico.... 

Santa Fe. 

53 

55 

New York. 

Albany.. 

North Carolina.. 

Raleigh. 

69 

Ohio. 

Columbus. 

58 

52 

Oregon. 

Portland. 

Pennsylvania.... 

Harrisburg. 

50 

Rhode Island.... 

Providence. 

51 

South Carolina... 

Columbia. 

60 

49 

51 

Tennessee. 

Nashville. 

Texas. 

Austin. 

Utah. 

Salt Lake City. .. 

56 

69 

45 

Vermont. 

Montpelier. 

Virginia. 

Richmond. 

Washineton T... 

Steilacoom. 

54 

West Virginia... 

Romney. 

48 

Wisconsin. 

Madison. 

47 

Wyoming. 

Fort Rridger. 

42 




64° 

55 

43 

49 

50 

40 

53 

51 
48 
59 
53 

53 

54 
48 
62 
58 
67 

52 
43 
57 

51 

52 
45 

41 


412 



























































































































THE LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. 

A cluster of flowers can be made to express any sentiment, if 
care is taken in the selection. 

If a flower is offered reversed , its original signification is con¬ 
tradicted, and the opposite implied. 

A rosebud divested of its thorns, but retaining its leaves, con¬ 
veys the sentiment, “I fear no longer; I hope.” Stripped of 
leaves and thorns, it signifies, “There is nothing to hope or fear.” 

A full-blown rose, placed over two buds, signifies “Secrecy.” 

“Yes” is implied by touching the flower given to the lips; 
“No,” bv pinching off a petal and casting it away. 

“I am” is expressed by a laurel leaf twined around the bou¬ 
quet; “I have,” by an ivy leaf folded together; “I offer you,” by 
a leaf of Virginia creeper. 




COMBINATIONS. 


Moss Rosebud, 
Myrtle, 
Mignonette, 
Colored Daisy, 
Lily of the Valley, 
Ferns, 

Yellow Rose, 
Broken Straw, 

Ivy, 

Scarlet Geranium, 
Passion Flower, 
Purple Hyacinth, 
Arbor Vitae, 
Columbine, 

Day Lily, 

Broken Straw, 
Witch Hazel, 
Colored Daisy, 
White Pink, 
Canary Grass, 
Laurel, 

Golden-rod, 

Monkshead, 

Sweet Pea, 
Forget-me-not, 


j A confession 
l of love. 

) Your qualities surpass your charms 
| of beauty. 

/ Your unconscious sweetness 
\ has fascinated me. 

Your jealousy 
has broken 
our friendship. 

I trust you will find consolation, 
through faith, 
in your sorrow; 

be assured of my unchanging friendship. 
’ Your folly and 
coquetry have 
broken 

the spell of your 
„beauty. 

Your talent 
and perseverance 
will win you glory. 

Be cautious; 
danger is near; 

I depart soon; 
forget me not. 


Arbor Vitae.—Unchanging friendship. 
Camellia, White.—Loveliness. 
Candy-Tuft.—Indifference. 

Carnation, White.—Disdain. 

China Aster.—Variety. 

Clover, Four-Leaf.—Be mine. 

Clover, White.—Think of me. 

Clover, Red.—Industry. 

Columbine.—Folly. 

Daisy.—Innocence. 

Daisy, Colored.—Beauty. 

Dead Leaves.—Sadness. 

Deadly Nightshade.—Falsehood. 
Fern.—Fascination. 

Forget-me-not. 

Fuchsia, Scarlet.—Taste. 

Geranium, Horseshoe.—Stupidity. 
Geranium, Scarlet.—Consolation. 


Geranium, Rose-—Preference, 
Golden-rod.—Be cautious. 

Heliotrope.—Devotion. 

Hyacinth, White.—Loveliness. 
Hyacinth, Purple.—Sorrow. 

Ivy.—Friendship. 

Lily, Day.—Coquetry. 

Lily, White.—Sweetness. 

Lily, Yellow.—Gayety. 

Lily, Water.—Purity of heart; elegance. 
Lily of the Valley.—Unconscious sweet¬ 
ness. 

Mignonette.—Your qualities surpass 
your charms. 

Monkshead.—Danger is near. 

Myrtle.—Love. 

Oak.—Hospitality. 

Orange Blossoms.—Chastity. 







THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS. 


Straw.—Agreement. 

Straw, Broken.—Broken agreement. 
Sweet Pea.—Depart. 

Tuberose.—Dangerous pleasures. 
Thistle.—Sternness. 

Verbena.—Pray for me. 

White Jasmine.—Amiability. 

Witch Hazel.—A spell. 


Pansy.—Thoughts. 

Passion Flower.—Faith. 

Primrose.—Inconstancy. 

Rose.—Love. 

Rose, Damask.—Beauty ever new. 

Rose, Yellow.—Jealousy. 

Rose, White.—I am worthy of you. 

Rosebud, Moss.—Confession of love. 

Smilax.—Constancy. 

THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS. 

Amethyst. —Peace of mind. Regarded bj the ancients as 

having the power to dispel drunkenness. 

Bloodstone. —I mourn your absence. Worn by the ancients 

as an amulet or charm, on account of the medicinal and magical virtues it was sup¬ 
posed to possess. 

Diamond. —Pride. Awarded supernatural qualities from the 

most remote period down to the Middle Ages. Has the power of making men 
courageous and magnanimous. Protects from evil spirits Influences the gods to 
take pity upon mortals. Maintains concord between husband and wife, and for this 
reason was held as the most appropriate stone for the espousal ring. 

Emerald. —Success in love. Mentioned in the Bible as worn 

in the breast-plate of the High Priest as an emblem of chastity. 

Ruby. —A cheerful mind. An amulet against poison, sadness, 
evil thoughts. A preservative of health. Admonishes the wearer of impending 
danger by changing color. 

Sapphire. —Chastity. Procures favor with princes. Frees 

from enchantment. Prevents impure thoughts. 

Topaz. —Fidelity. Calms the passions. [tagion. 

Turqjjoise. —Success and happiness. Preserves from con- 
Garnet. —Fidelity in every engagement. Onyx.—Reciprocal 
love. Opal.—Pure thoughts. Pearl.—Purity and innocence. 


Making Blackboards.— The following directions for this 

work are given us by an experienced superintendent : The first care must be to 
make the wall surface or boards to be blacked perfectly smooth. Fill all the holes 
and cracks with plaster of Paris mixed with water; mix but little at a time; press in 
and smooth down with a case knife. The cracks between shrunken boards may be 
filled in the same way. Afterward use sandpaper. The ingredients needed for slat¬ 
ing are (i) liquid gum shellac, sometimes called shellac varnish; ( 2 ) lampblack or 
drop black. Gum shellac is cut in alcohol, and the liquid can be obtained of any 
druggist. Pour some shellac into an open dish, and stir in lampblack to make a 
heavy paint With a clean brush, spread on any kind of surface but glass. Put on 
a little and test it. If it is glossy and the chalk slips over it, reduce the mixture 
with alcohol Alcohol can be bought of any druggist. If it rubs off, let the drug¬ 
gist put in more gum to make the liquid thicker. One quart of the liquid and a 5 
cent paper of lampblack are sufficient to # slate all the blackboards in any country 
school with two coats. 

How to Polish Horns.— First boil the horn to remove the 

pith, if it has been freshly taken from the animal. If it is an old, dry horn, the 
pith may be dried out, and boiling is not necessary; but it may be laid in hot 
water for a short time to make it soft. Then scrape off all the roughnesses with a 
coarse file, a knife or a piece of glass. When the rough spots are removed rub 
around the horn with coarse sandpaper, then with a finer kind. After this, rub the 
horn lengthwise with a flannel cloth which has been dipped in powdered pumice- 
stone or rotten stone, and moistened in linseed oil. This rubbing should continue 
till all the sandpaper marks are removed, then give a final rubbing with a clean 
flannel cloth, and lastly, with a piece of tissue paper. 

414 




THE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY. 


THE TELEPHONE. —The principle of the telephone, that sounds 
could be conveyed to a distance by a distended wire, was demonstrated by Robert 
Hook in 1667 , but no practical application was made of the discovery until 1821 , 
when Professor Wheatstone exhibited his “Enchanted Lyre,” in which the sounds 
of a music box were conveyed from a cellar to upper rooms. The first true discov¬ 
erer of the speaking telephone, however, was Johann Philipp Reis, a German sci¬ 
entist and professor in the institute of Friedrichsdorf. April 25 , 1861 , Reis exhib¬ 
ited his telephone at Frankfort. This contained all the essential features of the 
modern telephone, but as its commercial value was not at all comprehended, little 
attention was paid to it. Reis, after trying in vain to arouse the interest of scientists 
in his discovery, died in 1874 , without having reaped any advantage from it, and 
there is no doubt that his death was hastened by the distress of rnind caused by his 
continual rebuffs. Meanwhile, the idea was being worked into more practical 
shape by other persons, Professor Elisha Gray and Professor A.G. Bell, and later by 
Mr. Edison. There is little doubt that Professor Gray’s successful experiments con¬ 
siderably antedated those of the others, but Professor Bell was the first to perfect 
his patent. February 12 , 1877 , Bell’s articulating telephone was tested by experi¬ 
ments at Boston and Salem, Mass., and was found to convey sounds distinctly from 
one place to the other, a distance of eighteen miles. This telephone was exhibited 
widely in this country and in Europe during that year, and telephone companies 
were established to bring it into general use. Edison’s carbon “loud-speaking” tel¬ 
ephone was brought out in 1878 . It is not worth while to go into details on the sub¬ 
ject of priority of invention. The Examiner of Patents at Washington, July 21 , 1883 , 
decided that Professor Bell was the first inventor, because he was the first to com¬ 
plete his invention and secure a full patent. Since 1878 there have been many im¬ 
provements in the different parts of the telephone, rendering it now nearly perfect 
in its working. 

THE PHONOGRAPH. —The principle of the phonograph is very 
simple. All sound is produced by vibrations of the air. Therefore, any sound 
whatever can be reproduced by reproducing its vibrations. The phonograph is re¬ 
garded as one of the wonders of the nineteenth century, and yet its foundation prin¬ 
ciple is as readily understood as the multiplication table, and its construction is sim¬ 
plicity itself. A small brass cylinder is made to turn on a metal shaft, and upon its 
surface is cut a spiral groove, corresponding to threads cut on the shaft. Over the 
cylinder is spread a sheet of tin foil, secured on its edges by some highly adhering 
substance. A crank attached to the shaft turns the cylinder, giving it at the same 
time a rotary and a horizontal motion. In front of the cylinder is a mouthpiece, hav¬ 
ing on its bottom (next the cylinder) a very thin plate or diaphragm of metal, to which 
is attached a round steel point. Before using the apparatus the steel point must be 
accurately adjusted opposite to that part of the foil lying over the spiral groove. If 
the lips are now applied to the mouthpiece and any sentence spoken, the crank at 
the same time being turned, the vibrations imparted to the metal plate by the voice 
will cause the steel point to come into contact with that part of the foil overlying the 
groove and to make on it a series of indentations as it revolves and is carried forward 
laterally before the mouthpiece. These indentations vary in depth and sectional 
outline according to the force and kind of vibrations made, and are in fact a tran¬ 
scription of the sounds. They are then translated by bringing the cylinder back to 
its starting-point and substituting for the mouthpiece a resonator. The steel is then 
held by a screw close to the foil, and as the cylinder moves the point retraces the in¬ 
dentations from beginning to end and communicates to the metal diaphragm the 
same vibrations which it had received from it, and these vibrations, communicated 
to the resonating apparatus, are reproduced as spoken words. If the crank is 
turned with exact regularity the exact pitch and tone of the speaker’s voice will 
also be given back. The phonograph was invented by Mr. Edison in 1 x 877 anc * 
brought before the public early in the following year. Ihe inventor believed that 
the numerous practical applications of this machine would commend it very largely 
to general use. This has not thus far proved to be the case, not because the instru¬ 
ment itself is lacking, for added experiment only proves its more remarkable possi¬ 
bilities, but probably because the invention is so wholly new and strange, so at vari¬ 
ance with anything previously known and understood, that men have not yet been 
able to comprehend its application to everyday affairs. [415] 



THE WONDERS OF ELECTR1C1TT. 


THE GRAPHOPHONE.—This invention is the work of Mr. Sum¬ 
ner Taintor, aided by Professor Bell, the telephone inventor. The machine is oper¬ 
ated on the principle of the phonograph. It is very simple and is free from mechan¬ 
ical complication. It has a treadle, and it looks very much like a small sewing- 
machine. Edison discovered the art of recording and reproducing sound, but his in¬ 
vention could not be used because of its clumsy mechanical arrangement, coupled 
with the very inferior and unsatisfactory methods of recording the sounds produced. 
He used a piece of tinfoil upon which the sound waves were 

indented and from which they were easily obliterated. The present 

inventor, Mr. Taintor, saw that a iess destructible material was required, and 
after considerable experiment tried a preparation of wax and paraffine. This is the 
surface now used, and it works perfectly. He then made an entirely new apparatus, 
and the result is the graphophone, a machine which will sing a song, report a 
whistle, or give the quality and inflections of the voice in a most charming way. 
The small point which is attached to the diaphragm of the machine cuts a minute 
hair line in the wax surface. This line is so faint that it is scarcely perceptible to 
the naked eye, yet it serves to give a reproduction, so as to be distinctly hea. ^ 
the listener, of a song, a laugh, or an ordinary speech. 

THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY.—Electricity may be applied to the 
propulsion of cars in two different ways. In one case the current is supplied to the 
electro-motors from storage batteries carried by the cars. This method requires no 
change in the ordinary roadbed used by the steam railway, but no means have yet 
been invented for making or operating economically the storage battery required. 
In the second case the current is supplied to the motors on moving trains from sta¬ 
tions along the line of road through properly placed conductors. The method re¬ 
quires a peculiar construction of the road throughout with reference to the nece&’ary 
electrical conditions. Several different forms of the electric railway are possible, 
depending on the method by which the current s conducted to the motors. By one 
method the two rails are used as conductors, the current going out by one rail and 
returning by the other, and passing to the electro-motors through the wheels of the 
train, which are insulated. There is much leakage or loss of power in this method, 
however, and its inventors have essayed to overcome by using a third rail or conduc¬ 
tor for the outgoing current, utilizing both rails for its return. We will briefly de¬ 
scribe the method of working the Siemens electric railway, which has been applied 
successfully to several short railway lines in Europe. The longest of these lines is 
that between Portrush and Bushmills, in the north of Ireland, which is six miles 
long. The line is a three-foot gauge, single track, laid at one side of the country 
road. The third rail, or conductor, is placed beside the roadbed, 17 inches above 
the ground. It is a T-rail carried upon insulator posts. The current is conveyed 
by the conductor to the car by means of two steel springs, one at each end. 
Wherever the railway crosses roads the conductor is carried underground. The 
current from the conducting rail passes through the car to the return rails by a 
switch worked by a lever—with which resistance coils can be placed in or out of 
circuit—then through the electro-motor to the wheels by whieh it reaches the rails. 
The motor is placed in the center of the car, beneath the floor, being connected with 
the axle of one pair of wheels by gearing. The reversing and brake levers are 
placed at each end of the car, so that it can be operated from either end. The rails 
of the track are laid in the usual manner, and are connected with the strips of cop¬ 
per to insure good electrical contact. In the Edison and Field railway; which was 
exhibited at the Chicago Exhibition of Railway Appliances, the same general plan 
was observed, but the conductor was placed between the two other rails, and the 
current was conveyed from this rail to the car through stiff wire brushes pressing q,; 
each side of the rail. These were operated by a lever reaching down from the car. 
This track was 1,553 feet * n length. 

THE ELECTRIC LIGHT.—Setting aside natural phenomena, as 

the lightning and St. Elmo’s fire, and all mere experiments with the electric spa**' 
the first inventor of the electric light was Sir Humphrey Davy, who in the early pt 
of the century produced the arc light with a battery of 2,000 cells. The mode 
producing this light is as follows: When the terminal wires of an electric battr 

416 


THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. 


are brought together and then separated slightly an intense, bright light between 
them results, and this, because of its curved form, is called the electric arc. This 
light, in temperature as well as brightness, exceeds all other artificial sources of heat, 
by its means the hardest substances, even the diamond, being entirely consumed. 
The wires of the battery in this light melt and drop off in globules, but it was found 
that hard carbon points on the wires would prevent this, as well as increase the in¬ 
tensity of the light. Davy used pieces of charcoal. Foucault, in his experiments 
in 1844 . used carbon from the retorts of gas-works, which is much harder. Foucault’s 
improvement led to the first practical use of the electric light. It was used to il- 
JVi’minate the Place de la Concorde, in Paris, being placed on the knee of one of the 
statues there, and amazing all beholders with its brilliant power. The carbon 
points, though not destroyed as rapidly as wire, yet of course must waste in the con¬ 
suming heat of the light. In time the distance between them is increased until the 
light is interrupted, and they must be brought together again to renew the illumina¬ 
tion, Thomas Wright, of London, invented the first apparatus for moving the points 
automatically toward each other, a feature which now belongs to several forms of 
e'v ofic lighting. As it has been found that the positive carbon wastes more rapidly 
'^’1 ah''the negative, that point is made to move over a wider space than the other in 
the same interval of time. 

In 1855 Jules Duboscq’s electric lamp—thus far the most perfect of the kind—was 
shown at the Paris Exhibition, and Professor Tyndall, of England, adopted it for 
the illustration of his lectures on light and colors In 185 ! the works of the new 
Westminster bridge, London, were illuminated by Watson’s electric light, and the 
following year the magneto-electric light, invented by Professor Holmes, was suc¬ 
cessfully tried at the lighthouse at Dover. In 1861 the French Government pro¬ 
vided for the illumination of eight coast light-houses by the electric light. But, 
tht agh improvements were made in the invention during the fifteen years following, 
lktle was accomplished toward practical electric lighting until the invention of 
Jablochkoff’s candle. Paul Jablo^hkoff was a Russian, who for his scientific knowl¬ 
edge and skill had been appointed director of telegraph lines between Moscow and 
Kursk. He resigned this post in 1875 , desiring to devote his time wholly to scien¬ 
tific study. He intended to visit the Centennial Exhibition in this country in 1876 . 
but on his way hither stopped in Paris, where a noted chemist induced him to re¬ 
main by placing a large laboratory at his disposal. Here a few months later he 
produced the electric candle, whose discovery made a great sensation. This con¬ 
sisted of two carbons placed side by side, separated and encased in an insulating 
.and fusible substance. As the carbons wasted the fusible substance was also con¬ 
sumed. The light given by this candle was soft and steady, and a large number of 
them speedily came into use in Europe. It was quite overshadowed in importance, 
however, by the incandescent lamp, which was first invented about 1870 . The dif¬ 
ferent kinds of electric lights now in use may be divided into five groups, thus: 1 . 
Glow lamps or incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced by a bad conduc¬ 
tor in an uninterrupted circuit, the conductor itself being not directly consumed. 2 . 
Mixed or semi-incandescent lamps, in which the light is produced at the place of 
contact between two conductors, one of them being consumed more or less rapidly. 
3 . Regulated lamps, in which the light is formed by the voltaic arc, and the dis¬ 
tance of the carbons is continually regulated by clockwork or other means. 4 . 
Electric candles, having the carbons parallel, as above described. In each of these 
groups a series of different lamps have been invented, differing somewhat in details 
of construction. Thus we have, in the incandescent lamps, the Swan lamp, tu^ 
Maxim lamp, the Edison lamp, the Siemens lamp, and others. We may briefly de¬ 
scribe the Edison as a type of the class. In this bamboo fiber is used for the carbon 
filament, and this is attached to platinum wire. By means of machinery the bam- 
%oo is divided into small fibers, and pressed in U-shaped moulds, then put into 
ovens where they are allowed to become carbonized. They are then attached to 
the plantinum wire and fused in a glass stopper. A glass tube is now blown into a 
bulb the stopper is placed in it, and both bulb and stopper are fused together, 
'^he bulb is then exhausted of its air—for the electric light requires a vacuum 
Hpr its brilliancy—and the opening at its apex is closed by fusing. The platinum 

ires of the lamp are connected with the copper wires from a battery, and the lamp 
y; 2 ,ready for use. A very simple contrivance for breaking the current by turning a 


STORAGE OF ELECTRICITT. 


key serves to ignite or extinguish the lamps. Each lamp is guaranteed to burn 800 
hours; after about that period both the platinum and the carbon are exhausted by 
slow combustion, and a new lamp must be fitted on. The principal difference be¬ 
tween the incandescent lamps is in the preparation of the carbon filament. Those 
for the Swan lamp are made from cotton fibers soaked in sulphuric acid, then packed 
in fine coal-dust, and exposed to heat. The Maxim lamp filaments are prepared 
from Bristol paper; those of the Lane-Fox lamp from hemp and coke; those of the 
Bernstein lamp—one of the most brilliant made—are of silk carbonized in coal-dust. 
The half-incandescent lamps are quite a recent invention, the first being made in 
1878 . In these the light arises at the point of contact, and the essential features of 
the plan consist of a pencil of carbon pressed against a carbon block; as its point is 
consumed the pencil is pushed forward, thus rendering the light continuous. Some 
eight or nine different lamps have been invented on this plan. The regulated arc 
lamps include an even larger number of patents, of which the best known in this 
country is the Brush light. The lights in all these are formed between the points 
of the carbon rods, and the details of clockwork for moving forward the rods as they 
are consumed are too technical for description. Still another style of electric lamp 
has the carbons inclined at an angle to each other, and some very successful lamps, 
as the Soleil, have been made on this plan. It might be here noted that the great 
impetus given to the electric light by the work of Mr. Edison was not so much in 
improving the lamp as in cheapening the process of generating the electricity, and 
inventing a ready mode of dividing the light. Hitherto the expense attendant 
upon the production of the electric force, and the difficulty of using it simul¬ 
taneously at a large number of illuminating points, had been the two principal bar¬ 
riers in the way of applying the electric light to public use. 

STORAGE OF ELECTRICITY.—It must be noted, to begin with, 
that the term “storing electricity” conveys, usually, an altogether erroneous idea to 
the uninitiated. They are apt to conceive of it as pouring electricity into some re¬ 
ceptacle, as we pour oil into a lamp, to be used when needed. But, in fact, elec¬ 
tricity is an energy, not a substance, and therefore is not capable of storage, in the 
ordinary sense. What is really done by the “storage” apparatus is to convert elec¬ 
tricity into chemical energy, under such circumstances that, by proper arrange¬ 
ments, it may be readily converted back into electricity. The secondary batteries 
used for the storing purpose are more correctly termed accumulators. The first bat¬ 
tery of this kind was made by Ritter about 1840 , and it consisted of a series of disks 
of a single metal, alternated with cloth or card moistened in a liquid by which the 
metal would not be affected chemically. In 1859 Mr. Gaston Plante made a sec¬ 
ondary battery, for which he used plates of lead, instead of plates of platinum. 
Passing a current through these, lead oxide was deposited, and after the charging 
current was removed, the lead and lead oxide were found to yield a very slight cur¬ 
rent. To increase this Plante devised the plan of first charging the plates, then 
discharging, then charging again with the battery current reversed, and so on,until,by 
repeated oxidations and subsequent reductions of the oxidized material, very porous 
plates were made. These, by their porosity, exposed a large surface to the oxidizing 
action of the current, so that a small porous plate took up as much electricity as one 
of large superficial area. Plante found that by connecting a number of cells to¬ 
gether, and after charging them, arranging them in series, that is, the positive plate 
of one connected with the negative plate of another, and so on, he could store for 
use quite powerful currents of electricity. In 1880 another electrician, M. Camille 
Faure, devised the plan of coating Plante’s lead plates with red lead, and then en¬ 
casing them in flannel. The advantage of the red lead is that it is very quickly 
made porous, and therefore the process of repeated charging of the plates, known 
as the “forming” process, was reduced from weeks to days, and even to hours. This 
discovery, by reducing the time and expense of making the secondary battery, gave 
it a commercial value thai it never had before, and it was hailed as a great advan¬ 
tage. Since that time a number of patents have been obtained for storage batteries, 
and they now exist in different forms, but generally modeled on the inventions of 
Plante and Faure. The efforts of inventors have been mainly directed toward re¬ 
ducing the weight of the cells and to devising new ways of holding the red lead on 
the plates. This last-named substance, becoming porous, drops off readily, and for 

418 


ELECTRICAL TERMS. 

this reason the encasements of flannel, etc., were first devised. In some of the stor¬ 
age batteries, a plate, or frame, of cast lead is used, with receptacles, cells, etc., 
which are filled with the red lead. 

ELECTRICAL TERMS. —The technical terms used in regard to 
electricity refer to units of various nature. Thus the unit of capacity is one farad; the 
unit of activity, one watt; the unit of work one joule; the unit of quantity, one coul¬ 
omb; the unit of current, one ampere; the unit of resistance, one ohm; the unit of 
magnetic field, one gauss; the unit of pressure, one volt; the unit of force, one 
dyne. The names are mostly derived from the names of men that have been famous 
in the field of electrical research. Thus Michael Faraday, James Watt and James 
P. Joule, famous English discoverers, give their names to the first three units men¬ 
tioned; Charles A. Coulomb and Andre M. Ampere, French inventors, to the two 
units following; G. S. Ohm and Carl F. Gauss, Germans, name two more units; and 
the volt is named from the Italian discoverer, Volta. The dyne is derived from the 
root word of dynamo, itself meaning for ce. 

Preserving Wood. —There have been a number of processes 

patented for preserving wood. One of them, very generally used, consists in im¬ 
mersing the timber in a bath of corrosive sublimate. Another process consists in first 
filling the pores with a solution of chloride of calcium under pressure, and next 
forcing in a solution of sulphate of iron, by which an insoluble sulphate of lime is 
formed in the body of the wood, which is thus rendered nearly as hard as stone. 
Wood prepared in this way is now very largely used for railroad ties. Another pro¬ 
cess consists in impregnating the wood with a solution of chloride of ?inc. Yet 
another way is to thoroughly impregnate the timber with oil of tar containing crea- 
sote and a crude solution of acetate of iron. The process consists in putting the 
wood in a cylindrical vessel, connected with a powerful air pump. The air is with¬ 
drawn, and the liquid subjected to pressure, so that as much of it as possible is 
forced into the pores of the wood. The processes above given not only season the 
timber so that it is not subject to dry rot, but also keep it from being injured by the 
weather, or being attacked by insects or worms. 

To Make Cloth Waterproof. —There have been various 

devices for rendering cloth waterproof without the use of India rubber. The mosf 
successful of these, no doubt, is the Stenhouse patent. This consists of the appli¬ 
cation of paraffine combined with drying oil. Paraffine was first used alone, but it 
was found to harden and break off frorq the cloth after a time. When drying oil 
was added, however, even in a very small quantity, it was found that the two sub¬ 
stances, by the absorption of oxygen, became converted into a tenacious substance 
very like resin. To apply this the paraffine is melted with drying oil, and then cast 
into blocks. The composition can then be applied to fabrics by rubbing them over 
with a block of it, either cold or gently warmed. Or the melted mixture may be 
applied with a brush and the cloth then passed through hot rollers in order to 
cover its entire substance perfectly. This application makes cloth very repellant to 
water, though still pervious to air. 

The Rule of the Road. —The “rule of the road” in the 

United states is “turn to the right;” in England it is the reverse. The rule holds in 
this country in the case where two vehicles going in opposite directions meet. 
When one vehicle overtakes another the foremost gives way to the left and the 
other passes by on the “offside;” and when a vehicle is crossing the direction of 
another it keeps to the left and crosses in its rear. These two rules are the same in 
this country and in England, and why the rule concerning meeting vehicles 
should have been changed it is impossible to say. We find this point of difference 
noted by all authorities, but no reason for it is ever suggested. Probably, as it is 
easier to turn to the right than to the left, it was adopted as the more preferable 
custom in some of the early colonies, and in due time became embodied in local 
law, and thus was handed down to later times. 

Piano Polish. —Take equal proportions of turpentine, linseed 

oil and vinegar. Mix; rub in well with a piece of flannel cloth. Then polish with a 
piece of chamois skin. This treatment will entirely remove the dingy appearance 
that age gives to fine woods. 

419 



NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. 


CHRISTIAN NAMES OF MEN. 

Aaron, Hebrew, a mountain, or lofty. 
Abel, Hebrew, vanity. 

Abraham, Hebrew, the father of many. 
Absalom, Hebrew, the father of peace. 
Adam, Hebrew, red earth. 

Adolphus, Saxon, happiness and help. 
Adrian. Latin, one who helps. 

Alan, Celtic, harmony; or Slavonic, a 
hound. 

Albert, Saxon, all bright. 

Alexander, Greek, a helper of men. 
Alfred, Saxon, all peace 
Alonzo, form of Alphonso, q. v. 

Alphonso, German, ready or willing. 
Ambrose, Greek, immortal. 

Amos, Hebrew, a burden. 

Andrew, Greek, courageous. 

Anthofty, Latin, flourishing. 

Archibald, German, a bold observer. 
Arnold, German, a maintainer of honor. 
Arthur, British, a strong man. 

Augustin,' [ Latin ' venerable > e rand - 
Baldwin, German, a bold winner. 
Bardulph, German, a famous helper. 
Barnaby , Hebrew, a prophet’s son. 
Bartholomew, Hebrew, the son of him 
who made the waters to rise. 
Beaumont, French, a pretty mount. 
Bede, Saxon, prayer. 

Benjamin, Hebrew, the son of a right 
hand. 

Bennet Latin, blessed, 

Bernard, German, bear’s heart. 

Bertram, German, fair, illustrious. 
Bertrand German, bright raven. 
Boniface, Latin, a well doer. 

Brian, French, having a thundering 
voice. 

Cadwallader, British, valiant in war. 
Caesar, Latin adorned with hair. 

Caleb, Hebrew, a dog. 

Cecil, Latin, dim-sighted. 

Charles, German, noble-spirited. 
Christopher, Greek, bearing Christ. 
Clement, Latin, mild tempered. 

Conrad, German, able counsel. 
Constantine, Latin, resolute. 

Cornelius, Latin, meaning uncertain. 
Crispin, Latin, having curled locks. 
Cuthbert, Saxon, known famously. 

Dan, Hebrew, judgment. 

Daniel, Hebrew, God is judge. 

David, Hebrew , well-beloved. 

Denis, Greek, belonging to the God of 
wine. 

Douglas, Gatlic, dark gray. 

Duncan, Saxon, brown chief. 

Dunstan, Saxon, most high. 

Edgar, Saxon, happy honor. 

Edmund, Saxon, happy peace. 


Edward, Saxon, happy keeper; 

Edwin, Saxon, happy conqueror. 
Egbert, Saxon, ever bright. 

Elijah, Hebrew, God the Lord. 

Elisha, Hebrew, the salvation of God! 
Emmanuel, Hebrew, God with us. 

Enoch, Hebre-w, dedicated. 

Ephraim, Hebrew, fruitful. 

Erasmus, Greek, lovely, worthy to be: 
loved. 

Ernest, Greek, earnest, serious. 

Esau, Hebrew, hairy. 

Eugene, Greek, noble, descended. 
Eustace, Greek, standing firm;. 

Evan, or Ivan, British, the same as. 
John. 

Everard, German, well reported. 
Ezekiel, Hebrew, the strength of Godb 
Felix, Latin, happy. 

Ferdinand, German, pure peace.- 
Fergus, Saxon, manly strength. 

Francis, German, free. 

Frederic, German, rich peace. 

Gabriel, Hebrew, the strength of God- 
Goeffrey, German, joyful. 

George, Greek, a husbandman. 

Gerard, Saxon, all towardliness. 

Gideon, Hebrew, a breaker. 

Gilbert, Saxon, bright as gold. 

Giles, Greek, a little goat. 

Godard, German, a godly disposition. 
Godfrey, German, God’s peace. 

Godwin, German, victorious in God. 
Griffith, British, having great faith. 

Guy, French, a leader. 

Hannibal, j Punic, a gracious lord. 

Harold, Saxon, a champion. 

Hector, Greek, a stout defender. 

Henry, German , a rich lord. 

Herbert, German, a bright lord. 
Hercules, Greek , the glory of Hera, or 
Juno. 

Hezekiah, Hebrew, cleaving to the Lord. 
Horace, Latin, meaning uncertain. 
Horatio, Italian, worthy to be beheld. 
Howel, British, sound or whole. 

Hubert, German, a bright color 
Hugh, Dutch, high, lofty. 

Humphrey, German, domestic peace. 
Ignatius, Latin, fiery. 

Ingram, German, of angelic purity. 
Isaac, Hebrew, laughter. 

Jabez, Hebrew, one who causes pain. 
Jacob, Hebrew, a supplanter- 
James, or Jacques, beguiling-, 

Joab, Hebrezv, fatherhood. 

Job, Hebrew, sorrowing. 

Joel, Hebrew, acquiescing. 

John, Hebrew, the grace of the Lord. 
Jonah, Hebrew, a dove. 

Jonathan, Hebrew, the gift of the Lord 
Joscelin, German, just. [42(1 



NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. 


Joseph, Hebrew, addition. 

Joshua, Hebrew, a Saviour. 

Josiah or Josais, Hebrew, the fire of the 
Lord, 

Julius, Latin, soft haired. 

Lambert, Saxon, a fair lamb. 

Lancelot, Spanish, a little lance. 
Laurence, Latin, crowned with laurels. 
Lazarus, Hebrew, destitute of help. 
Leonard, German, like a lion. 

Leopold, German, defending the people. 
Lewis or Louis, French, the defender of 
the people. 

Lionel, Latin, a little lion. 

Llewellin, British, like a lion. 
Llewellyn, Celtic, lightning. 

Lucius, Latin, shining. 

Luke, Greek, a wood or grove. 

Manfred, German, great peace. 

Mark, Latin, a hammer. 

Martin, Latin, martial. 

Matthew, Hebrew, a gift or present. 
Maurice, Latin, sprung of a Moor. 
Meredith, British, the roaring of the 
sea. 

Michael, Hebrew, who is like God? 
Morgan, British, a mariner. 

Moses, Hebrew, drawn out. 

Nathaniel, Hebrew, the gift of God. 
Neal, French, somewhat black. 
Nicholas, Greek, victorious over the peo¬ 
ple. 

Noel, French , belonging to one’s nativ- 
ity. 

Norman, French, one born in Normandy. 
Obadiah, Hebrew, the servant of the 
Lord. 

Oliver, Latin, an olive. 

Orlando, Italian, counsel for the land. 
Orson, Latin, a bear, 

O.-mund, Saxon, house peace. 

Oswald, Saxon, ruler of a house. 

Owen, British, well descended. 

Patrick, Latin, a nobleman. 

Paul, Latin, small, little. 

Paulinus, Latin , little Paul. 

Percival, French, a place in France. 
Percy, English, adaptation ot “pierce 
eye.” 

Peregrine, Latin, outlandish. 

Peter, Greek, a rock or stone. 

Philip, Greek, a lover of horses. 

Phineas, Hebrew, of bold countenance. 
Ralph, contracted from Randolph, or 
Randal, or Ranulph, Saxon, pure help. 
Raymond, German, quiet peace. 
Reuben, Hebrew, the son of vision. 
Reynold, German, a lover of purity. 
Richard, Saxon, powerful. 

Robert, German, famous in counsel. 
Roderick, German, rich in fame. 

Roger, German , strong counsel. 


Roland or Rowland, German, counsel 
for the land. 

Rollo, form of Roland, q. v. 

Rufus, Latin, reddish. 

Samson, Hebrew, a little son. 

Samuel, Hebreav, heard by God. 

Saul, Hebrew, desired. 

Sebastian, Greek, to be reverenced. 

Seth, Hebrew, appointed. 

Silas, Latin, sylvan or living in the 
woods. 

Simeon, Hebrew, hearing. 

Simon, Hebrew, obedient. 

Solomon, Hebrew, peaceable. 

Stephen, Greek, a crown or garland. 
Swithin, Saxon, very high. 

Theobald, Saxon, bold over the people. 
Theodore, Greek, the gift of God. 
Theodosius, Greek, given of God. 
Theophilus. Greek, a lover of God. 
Thomas, Hebrew, a twin. 

Timothy, Greek, a fearer of God. 

Titus, Greek, meaning uncertain. 

Toby, or Tobias, Hebrew, the goodness 
of the Lord. 

Valentine, Latin, powerful. 

Victor, Latin, conqueror. 

Vincent, Latin, Conquering. 

Vivian, Latin, living. 

Walter, German, a conqueror. 

Walwin, German, a conqueror. 

Wilfred, Saxon, bold and peaceful. 
William, German, defending many. 
Zaccheus, Syriac, innocent. 

Zachary, Hebrew, remembering the 
Lord. 

Zebedee, Syriac, having an inheritance. 
Zechariah, Hebrew, remembered of the 
Lord. 

Zedekiah, Hebrew, the justice of the 
Lord. 

CHRISTIAN NAMES OF WOMEN. 

Ada, German, same as Edith, q. v. 
Adela, German, same as Adeline, q. v. 
Adelaide, German, same as Adeline,?, v. 
Adeline, German, a princess. 

Agatha, Greek, good. 

Agnes, German, chaste. 

Alethea, Greek, the truth. 

Althea, Greek, hunting. 

Alice, Alicia, German, noble. 

Alma, Latin, benignant. 

Amabel, Latin, loveable. 

Amy, Amelia, French, a beloved. . 
Angelina, Greek, lovely, angelic. 

Anna, or Anne, Hebrew, gracious. 
Arabella, Latin, a fair altar. 

Aureola, Latin, like gold. 

Aurora, Latin, morning brightness. 
Barbara, Latin, foreign or strange. 
Beatrice, Latin, making happy. [421 




NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. 


Bella, Italian, beautiful. 

Benedicta, Latin , blessed. 

Bernice, Greek, bringing victory. 

Bertha, Greek, bright or famous. 

Bessie, short form of Elizabeth, q. v. 
Blanch, French, fair. 

Bona, Latin, good. 

Bridget, Irish, shining bright. 

Camilla, Latin, attendant at a sacrifice. 
Carlotta, Italian, same as Charlotte, q.v. 
Caroline, feminine of Carolos, the Latin 
of Charles, noble spirited. 

Cassandra, Greek, a reformer of men. 
Catherine, Greek, pure or clean. 

Cecilia, Latin, from Cecil. 

Charity, Greek, love, bounty. 

Charlotte, French, all noble. 

Chloe, Greek, a green herb. 

Christiana, Greek , belonging to Christ. 
Cicely, a corrziption ^Cecilia, q. v. 
Clara, Latin, clear or bright 
Clarissa, Latin, clear or bright. 
Constance, Latin, constant. 

Dagmar, German, joy of the Danes. 
Deborah, Hebrew, a bee. 

Diana, Greek, Jupiter’s daughter. 
Dorcas, Greek, a wild roe. 

Dorothea or Dorothy, Greek, the gift ot 
God. 

Edith, Saxon, happiness. 

Eleanor, Saxon, all fruitful. 

Eliza, Elizabeth, Hebrew, the oath ol 
God. 

Ellen, another form of Helen, q. v. 
Emily, corrupted from Amelia. 

Emma, Gertttan, a nurse. 

Esther, Hesther, Hebrew, secret. 

Eudoia, Greek, prospering in the way. 
Eudora, Greek, good gift. 

Eudosia, Greek, good gift or well-given. 
Eugenia, French, well-born. 

Eunice, Greek, fair victory. 

Eva or Eve, Hebrew, causing life. 
Fanny, diminutive of Francis, q. v. 
Fenella, Greek, bright to look on. 

Flora, Latin, flowers. 

Florence, Latin, blooming, flourishing. 
Francis, German, free. 

Gertrude, German, all truth. 

Grace, Latin, favor. 

Hagar, Hebrew, a stranger. 

Hadassah, Hebrew, form of Esther, q. v. 
Hannah, Hebrew, gracious. 

Harriet, German, head of the house. 
Helen or Helena, Greek, alluring. 
Henrietta, fern, and dim. of Henry, q. v. 
Hephzibah, Hebrew, my delight is in 
her. 

Hilda, German, warrior maiden. 
Honora, Latin, honorable. 

Huldah, Hebrew , a weazel. 

Isabella, Spanish, fair Eliza. 


Jane or Jeanne, fern, of John, q. v. 
Janet, Jeannette, little Jane. 

Jemima, Hebrew, a dove. 

Joan, Hebrew, fern, of John, q. v. 
Joanna or Johanna, form g/'Joan, q. v . 
Joyce, Fretich, pleasant 
Judith, Hebrew, praising. 

Julia, Juliana, feminine < 3 ^ Julius, q. v. 
Katherine, form ^Catherine, q. v. 
Keturah, Hebrew, incense. 

Kezsiah, Hebrew, cassia. 

Laura, Latin, a laurel. 

Lavinia, Latin, of Latium. 

Letitia, Latin, joy of gladness. 

Lilian, Lily, Latin, a lily. 

Lois, Greek, better. 

Louisa, German, fern, of Louis, q. v. 
Lucretia, Latin, a chaste Roman lady. 
Lucy, Latin, feminine ^"Lucius. 

Lydia, Greek, descended from Lud. 
Mabel, Latin, lovely or loveable. 
Madeline, fortn of Magdalen, q. v. 
Magdalen, Syriac, magnificent. 
Margaret, Greek, a pearl. 

Maria, Marie, forms of Mary, q. v. 
Martha, Hebrew, bitterness. 

Mary, Hebrew, bitter. 

Matilda, German, a lady of honor. 

Maud, German, form ^Matilda, q. v. 
May, Latin, month of May, or dim. of 
Mary, q. v. 

Mercy, English, compassion. 

Mildred, Saxon, speaking mild. 

Minnie, dim. of Margaret, q v. 

Naomi, Hebrew, alluring. 

Nest, British, the same as Agnes. 

Nicola, Greek, feminine of Nicholas. 
Olive, Olivia, Latin, an olive. 

Olympic, Greek, heavenly. 

Ophelia, Greek, a serpent. 

Parnell, or Petronilla, little Peter, 
Patience, Latin, bearing patiently. 
Paulina, Latin, feminine of Paulinus. 
Penelope, Greek, a weaver. 

Persis, Greek, destroying. 

Philadelphia, Greek, brotherly love. 
Philippa, Greek, feminine of Philip. 
Phoebe, Greek, the light of life. 

Phyllis, Greek, a green bough. 

Polly, variation ofbAoWy, dim. of Mary. 
q. v, 

Priscilla, Latin, somewhat old. 

Prudence, Latin, discretion, 

Pysche, Greek, the soul. 

Rachel, Hebrew, a lamb. 

Rebecca, Hebrew, fat or plump. 

Rhoda, Greek, a rose. 

Rosa or Rose, Latin, a rose. 

Rosalie or Rosaline, Latin, little rose. 
Rosalind, Latin, beautiful as a rose. 
Rosabella, Italian, a fair rose. 
Rosamond, Saxon, rose of peace. £422 




NAMES AND THEIR MEANING. 


Roxana, Persian , dawn of day. 

Ruth, Hebrew, trembling, or beauty. 
Sabina, Latin, sprung trom the Sabines. 
Salome, Hebrerv, perfect. 

Sapphira, Greek, like a sapphire stone. 
Sarah, Hebrew, a princess. 

Selina, Greek, the moon. 

Sibylla, Greek, the counsel of God. 
Sophia, Greek, wisdom. 

Sophronia, Greek, of a sound mind. 
Susan, Susanna, Hebrew, a lily. 


Tabitha, Syriac, a roe. 
Temperance, Latin, moderation, 
Theodosia, Greek, given by God. 
Tryphena, Greek, delicate. 
Tryphosa, Greek, delicious. 
Victoria. Latin, victory. 

Vida, Erse, feminine of David. 
Ursula, Latin, a she bear. 
Walburga, Saxon, gracious. 
Winifred, Saxon, winning peace. 
Zenobia, Greek, the life of Jupiter. 


There— my blessing with thee! 

And these few precepts in thy memory 

See thou character: Give thy thoughts no tongue* 

Nor any unproportioned thought his act. 

Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. 

Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, 

Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel; 

But do not dull thy palm with entertainment 
Of each new-hatch’d, unfledged comrade. Beware 
Of entrance to a quarrel, but, being in. 

Bear’t that th’ opposed may beware of thee. 

Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice. 

Take each man’s censure, but reserve thy judgment. 

Costly thy habit as thy purse can buy. 

But not express’d in fancy; rich, not gaudy; 

For the apparel oft proclaims the man. . . . 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be; 

For loan oft loses both itself and friend. 

And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 

This above all: To thine own self be true, 

And it must follow, as the night the day. 

Thou canst not then be false to any man.— Shakespeare. 

Protecting Lead Water Pipes.— To protect lead water- 

pipes from the action of water, which often affects them chemically, partially dis¬ 
solving them, and injuring the pipes, as well as poisoning the water, fill the pipes 
with a warm and concentrated solution of sulphide of potassium or sodium; leave 
the solution in contact with the lead for about fifteen minutes and then blow it out. 
This coats the inside of the pipes with sulphite of lead, which is absolutely insolu¬ 
ble, and cannot be acted upon by water at all. 

Fireproof Wood.— Soak 27.5 parts by weight of sulphate of 

zinc.n of potash; 22 of alum, and n of manganic oxide in luke warm water in an iron 
boiler, and gradually add 11 parts by weight of 60 per cent, sulphuric acid. The 
wood to be prepared is placed upon an iron grating in an apparatus of suitable size, 
the separate pieces being placed at least an inch apart. The liquid is then poured 
into the apparatus, and the wood allowed to remain completely covered for three 
hours, and is then air-dried. 

Cement for Rubber Boots.— A good cement for rubber 

boots is made by dissolving crude rubber in bisulphuret of carbon, making the solu¬ 
tion rather thin. Put the cement upon the patch and the boot, heat both, and put 
them together. 

Furniture Polish.— For French polishing cabinet-makers 
use: Pale shellac, 1 pound; mastic, 1 2-5 ounces; alcohol of 90 per cent, standard, 
1 to 1 i-s pints. Dissolve cold, with frequent stirring. 

423 




The Standard Silver Dollar. 

The coinage of the standard silver dollar was first authorized 
by Act of April 2, 1792. Its weight was to be 416 grains stand¬ 
ard silver; fineness, 892.4; which was equivalent to 371% grains 
of fine silver, with 44;% grains of pure copper alloy. This 
weight was changed by act of January 18, 1837, to 4123*2 grains, 
and fineness changed to 900, thus preserving the same amount of 
pure silver as before. By act of February 12, 1873, the coinage 
was discontinued. The total number of silver dollars coined 
from 1792 to 1873 was 8,045,838. The act of 1873 provided for 
the coinage of the “trade dollar,” of weight 420 grains, and an 
act passed in June, 1874, ordered that all silver coins should only 
be “legal tender at their nominal value for amounts not exceed¬ 
ing $5.” The effect of these acts was the “demonetization” of 
silver, of which so much has been said. Feb. 28, 1878, the coin¬ 
age of the standard dollar of 412)^ grains was revived by act of 
Congress; $2,000,000 per month was ordered coined, and the 
coins were made legal tender for all debts, public and private. 
From February, 1878, to Nov. 1,1885,213,257,594 of these stand¬ 
ard dollars were coined under the above act. 


Standard Time. 

What is known as the “new standard time” was adopted by 
agreement by all the principal railroads of the United States at 
12 o’clock, noon, on Nov. 18, 1883. The system divides the con¬ 
tinent into five longitudinal belts, and fixes a meridian of time 
- for each belt. These meridians are fifteen degrees of longitude, 
corresponding to one hour of time, apart. Eastern Maine, New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia use the the 60th meridian; the Can¬ 
adas, New England, the Middle States, Virginia and the Caro- 
linas use the 75th meridian, which is that of Philadelphia; the 
States of the Mississippi Valley, Alabama, Georgia and Florida, 
and westward, including Texas, Kansas, and the larger part of 
Nebraska and Dakota, use the 90th meridian, which is that of 
New Orleans. The Territories to the western border of Arizona 
and Montana go by the time of the 105th meridian, which is that of 
Denver; and the Pacific States employ the 120th meridian. The 
time divisions are known as intercolonial time, eastern time, 
central time, mountain time and Pacific time. A traveler pass¬ 
ing from one time belt to another will find his watch an hour too 
fast or too slow, according to the direction in which he is going. 
All points in any time division using the time of the meridian must 
set their time-pieces faster or slower than the time indicated by 
the sun, according as their position is east or west of the line. 
This change of system reduced the time standards used by the 
railroads from fifty-three to five, a great convenience to the rail¬ 
roads and the traveling public. The suggestion leading to the 
adoption of this new system originated with Professor Abbe, of 
the Signal Bureau at Washington. [ 424 ] 



Theosophy. 

Much is said nowadays about theosophy, which is really but 
another name for mysticism. It is not a philosophy, for it will 
have nothing to do with pholosophical methods: it might be 
called a religion, though it has never had a following large 
enough to make a very strong impression on the world’s religious 
history. The name is from the Greek word theosophia—divine 
wisdom—and the object of theosophical study is professedly to 
understand the nature of divine things. It differs, however, from 
both philosophy and theology even when these have the same 
object of investigation. For, in seeking to learn the divine nature 
and attributes, philosophy employs the methods and principles 
of natural reasoning; theology uses these, adding to them cer¬ 
tain principles derived from revelation. Theosophy, on the 
other hand, professes to exclude all reasoning processes as im¬ 
perfect, and to derive its knowledge from direct communication 
with God himself. It does not, therefore, accept the truths of 
recorded revelation as immutable, but as subject to modification 
by later direct and personal revelations. The theosophical idea 
has had followers from the earliest times. Since the Christian 
era we may class among theosophists such sects as Neo-Platon- 
ists, the Hesychasts of the Greek Church, the Mystics of mediae¬ 
val times, and, in later times, the disciples of Paracelsus, Thal- 
hauser, Bohme, Swedenborg, and others. Recently a small sect 
has arisen, which has taken the name of Theosophists. Its 
leader was an English gentleman who had become fascinated 
with the doctrine of Buddhism. Taking a few of his followers 
to India, they have been prosecuting their studies there, certain 
individuals attracting considerable attention by a claim to mirac¬ 
ulous powers. It need hardly be said that the revelations they 
have claimed to receive have been, thus far, without element of* 
benefit to the human race. 


The Evolution Theory. 

'The evolution or development theory declares the universe 
as it now exists to be the result of a long series of changes, which 
were so far related to each other as to form a series of growths 
analogous to the evolving of the parts of a growing organism. 
Herbert Spencer defines evolution as a progress from the homo¬ 
geneous to the heterogeneous, from general to special, from the 
simple to the complex elements of life, and it is believed that 
this process can be traced in the formation of worlds in space, in 
the multiplication of types and species among animals and 
plants, in the origin and changes of languages and literature and 
the arts, and also in all the changes of human institutions and 
society. Asserting the general fact of progress in nature, the 
evolution theory shows that the method of this progress has 
been (i) by the multiplication of organs and functions; (2) ac- 



THE MIND CURE. 


cording to a defined unity of plan, although with (3) the inter¬ 
vention of transitional forms, and (4) with modifications depend¬ 
ent upon surrounding conditions. Ancient writers occasionally 
seemed to have a glimmering knowledge of the fact of progress 
in nature, but as a theory “evolution” belongs to the enlighten¬ 
ment of the nineteenth century. Leibnitz, in the latter part of 
the seventeenth century, first uttered the opinion that the earth 
was once in a fluid condition, and Kant, about the middle of the 
eighteenth century, definitely propounded the nebular hypothesis, 
which was enlarged as a theory by the Herschels. The first 
writer to suggest the transmutation of species among animals was 
Buffon, about 1750, and other writers followed out the idea. The 
eccentric Lord Monboddo was the first to suggest the possible de¬ 
scent of man from the ape, about 1774. I n Dr. W. C. Wells first 
proposed to apply the principle of natural selection to the natur¬ 
al history of man, and in 1822 Professor Herbert first asserted 
the probable transmutation of species of plants. In 1844 a book 
appeared called “Vestiges of Creation,” which, though evidently 
not written by a scientific student, yet attracted great attention 
by its bold and ingenious theories. The authorship of this book 
was never revealed until after the death of Robert Chambers, a 
few years since, it became known that this publisher, whom no 
one would ever have suspected of holding such hetorodox the¬ 
ories, had actually written it. But the two great apostles of the 
evolution theory were Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. 
The latter began his great work, the “First Principles of Philos¬ 
ophy,” showing the application of evolution in the facts of life, 
in 1852. In 1859 appeared Darwin’s “Origin of Species.” The 
♦hypothesis of the latter was that different species originated in 
spontaneous variation, and the survival of the fittest through 
natural selection and the struggle for existence. This theory 
was further elaborated and applied by Spencer, Darwin, Huxley, 
and other writers in Europe and America, and though to-day by 
no means all the ideas upheld by these early advocates of the 
theory are still accepted, evolution as a principle is now 
acknowledged by nearly all scientists. It is taken to be an estab¬ 
lished fact in nature, a valid induction from man’s knowledge of 
natural order. 


The Mind Cure. 

The mind cure, otherwise known in its various subdivisions as 
metaphysics, Christian science, mental science, etc., is a species of 
delusion quite popular at the present time. Every era of the world 
has cherished similar delusions, for the mass of the human race, 
even in what are considered the educated classes, are so unfa¬ 
miliar with the processes of exact reasoning that they fall a 

426 



THE MIND CUkE. 

ready prey to quacks of all kinds. The fundamental idea of the 
mind cure system is that there is no such thing as sickness. Dis¬ 
ease, says one of their apostles, is an error of the mind, the result 
of fear. Fear is only faith inverted and perverted. God, who is 
all good Himself, and who made everything good, cannot have 
been the author of any disease. As disease, therefore, is not a 
creation, it has no existence, and when the healer has succeeded 
in impressing this fact upon the mind of the patient, the cure is 
effected. It is curious to note into what utter absurdities the 
need for consistency carries these apostles. Poisons, they say, 
would be quite harmless if the fear of them was removed, but we 
have yet to find the “mental science” teacher who will under¬ 
take to prove this by herself taking liberal doses of aconite and 
strychnine. The illnesses of children are explained by the hy¬ 
pothesis of hereditary fear. The majority of the teachers of this 
new faith are women, many of whom, no doubt, are sincere in 
their belief; but it may be safely stated that the men engaged as the 
so-called physicians of the new practice are, with few exceptions, 
unprincipled quacks, who have gone into the business for the 
money they can make by duping the ignorant. As far as there 
is any truth underlying the vagaries of mind cures, and their 
boasts of remarkable cases of healing, it may be admitted that 
the mind has much influence over the body. This fact has been 
recognized by intelligent physicians for centuries. And that the 
peculiar modern type of nervous diseases, which are so largely 
caused by excessive stimulus of the nerves and the imagination, 
should be amenable to cure through the imagination, is not 
strange. It will be noted, that this mental cure has effected its 
miracles mainly among women, where it has the emotional tem¬ 
perament to work on, and almost wholly in the ranks of the 
wealthy and well-to-do, where there is little or no impoverish¬ 
ment of the system by insufficient food and excessive toil to hin¬ 
der its effects. We have not heard, nor are we likely to hear, of 
an epidemic disease checked by the mind cure, or of the healing 
of acute affections or organic troubles through its agency. Nor 
do we hear of its seeking to carry its message of healing into the 
houses of the suffering poor in large cities, where hunger, expos¬ 
ure and foul airs open wide the door to fevers and all deadly 
diseases, nor yet into hospitals for contagious or incurable affec¬ 
tions. In the presence of such realities it would prove, as its 
votaries probably understand, a too-painful mockery. Intelli¬ 
gently analyzed, therefore, this new revelation amounts to noth¬ 
ing more than a quite striking proof of the remarkable influence 
of the mind over the nervous system. Beyond this, the craze, in 
attempting to disprove the existence of disease, and®to show that 
poisons do not kill, is simply running against the plain and inevi¬ 
table facts of life, and can safely be left to perish through its 
own rashness. 427 


GEMS OF POETRY. 


There is a tide in the affairs of men 

Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune; 

Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows and in miseries.— Shakespeare. 

Therefore, since brevity is the soul of wit, 

And tediousness the limbs and outward flourishes— 

I will be brief.— Shakespeare. 

The quality of mercy is not strain’d; 

It droppeth, as the gentle rain from heaven, 

Upon the place beneath.— Shakespeare. 

What are monuments of bravery 
Where no public virtues bloom? 

What avail, in lands of slavery, 

Trophied temples, arch and tomb?— Campbell. 

Virtue alone outbuilds the pyramids; Not to him who rashly dares. 

Her monuments shall last when Egypt’s But to him who nobly bears, 

fall.— Young. Is the victor’s garland sure.— Whittier. 

A trinity there seems of principles, 

Which represent and rule created life— 

The love of self, our fellows, and our God.— Bailey. 

Hark, his hands the lyre explore ! 

Bright-eyed Fancy, hovering o’er, 

Scatters from her pictur’d urn 

Thoughts that breathe and words that burn.— Gray. 

I hold it truth with him who sings 
To one clear harp in divers tones. 

That men may rise on stepping-stones 
Of their dead selves to higher things.— Tennyson. 

Think’st thou existence doth depend on time ? 

It doth; but actions are our epochs.— Byron. 

Man but dives in death; 

Dives from the sun in fairer day to rise. 

The grave his subterranean road to bliss.— Young. 

There is no death! What seems so is transition ; 

This life of mortal breath 
Is but a suburb of the life Elysian, 

Whose portal we call death.— Longfellow. 

Know, then, thyself; presume not God to scan; 

The proper study of mankind is man.— Fope. 

Lowliness is young ambition’s ladder, 

Whereto the climber upward turns his face; 

But when he once attains the utmost round. 

He then unto the ladder turns his back, 

Looks in the clouds, scorning the base degrees 
By which he did ascend.— Shakespeare. 

• 

Condition, circumstance, is not the thing; 

Bliss is the same in subject or in king.— Pope. 

428 



GEMS OF POETRT. 


'.\Ien who their duties know. 

But know their rights, and, knowing, 
Dare maintain.— Jones. 


Oh. fear not in a world like this. 

And thou shalt know ere long. 

Know how sublime a thing it is 

To suffer and be strong.— Longfellow. 


The Arve and Arveiron at thy base 

Rave ceaselessly; but thou, most awful Form 1 

Risestfrom forth thy silent sea of pines. 

How silently! Around thee and above 
Deep is the air, and dark, substantial black, 

An ebon mass; methinksthou piercest it 
As with a wedge .—Coleridge (On Mt. Blanc). 

Let fate do her worst, there are moments of joy. 

Bright dreams of the past, which she cannot destroy; 

Which come in the nighttime of sorrow and care, 

And bring back the features that joy used to wear.— Moore. 

Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought. 

To teach the young idea how to shoot, 

To pour the fresh instruction o’er the mind, 

To breathe th’ enliv’ning spirit, and to fix 

The generous purpose in the glowing breast.— Thontson. 

Every inordinate cup 

Is unblessed, and the ingredient is a devil — Shakespeare. 

And I will trust that He who heeds 

The life that hides in mead and wold. 

Who hangs yon alder’s crimson beads. 

And stains these mosses green and gold. 

Will still, as HE hath done, incline 

His gracious care to me and mine.— Whittier. 

Yet I doubt not through the ages 
One increasing purpose runs, 

And the thoughts of men are widened 

With the process of the suns. — Tennyson. 

'Oh, that men should put an enemy in 

Their mouths to steal away their brains !— Shakespeare. 

’Tis strange, but true, for truth is always strange. 

Stranger than fiction.— Byron. 

Still to ourselves in every place consigned. 

Our own felicity we make or find.— Goldsmith. 

Shall man alone, for whom all else revives, 

No resurrection know ?— You?ig. 

. To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 

To throw a perfume on the violet, 

To smooth the ice or add another hue 
Unto the rainbow, or with taper light 
To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish. 

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.— Shakespeare. 

The purest treasure mortal times afford 
Is spotless reputation; that away, 

Men are but gilded loam or painted clay.— Shakespeare. 

429 


GEMS OF POE TFT. 


Our little lives are kept in equipoise 
By opposite attractions and desires; 

The struggle of the instinct that enjoys, 

And the more noble instinct that aspires.— Longfellow . 

Oh ! many a shaft at random sent 
Finds mark the archer little meant, 

And many a word at random spoken 

May soothe or wound a heart that’s broken.— Scott . 

A weapon that comes down as still 
As snowflakes fall upon the sod, 

But executes a freeman’s will 

As lightning does-the will of God; 

And from its force nor doors nor locks 

Can shield you; ’tis the ballot-box.— Pier^ont. 

Happy the man who sees a God employed 
In all the good and ill that checker life !— Copper. 

’Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours. 

And ask them what report they bore to heaven. — Young. 

Kind hearts are more than coronets. 

And simple faith than Norman blood.— Tennyson. 

’Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 

And clothes the mountain in its azure hue.— Campbell. 

Good name, in man and woman, dear my lord, 

Is the immediate jewel of their souls.— Shakespeare . 

Who, then, to frail mortality shall trust, 

But limns the water, or but writes in dust.— Lord Bacon. 

My mind to me a kingdom is ; 

Such present joys therein I find 
That it excels all other bliss 

That earth affords or grows by kind ; 

Though much I want which most would have. 

Yet still my mind forbids to crave.— Dyer. 

But words are things, and a small drop of ink. 

Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces 

That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. 

— Byron. 


His golden locks hath Time to silver turned, 

O time too swift! O swiftness never ceasing ! 

His youth ’gainst time and age hath ever spurned. 

But spurned in vain; youth waneth by increasing. 

Beauty, strength, youth, are flowers but fading seen. 

Duty, faith, love, are roots, and ever green.— Lord Bacon. 

Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

When wealth accumulates and men decay; 

Princes and lords may flourish and may fade, 

A breath can make them as a breath has made. 

But an honest peasantry, a country’s pride, 

When once destroyed, can never be supplied.— Goldsmith. 

430 


GEMS OF POETRT. 


An honest man’s the noblest work of God.— Fope. 

’Tis heaven alone that is given away; 

’Tis only God may be had for the asking.— Lowell. 

There is no death! An angel form 

Walks o’er the earth with silent tread; 

He bears our best lov’d things away, 

And then we call them “dead.”— Harvey. 

First, then, a woman will or won’t, depend on’t: 

If she will do’t, she will; and there’s an end on’t. 

But if she won’t, since safe and sound your trust is. 
Fear is affront, and jealousy injustice.— Hill. 

What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted ? 

Thrice is he arm’d that hath his quarrel just; 

And he but naked, though lock’d up in steel, 

Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted.— Shakespeare. 

So dear to heaven is saintly chastity 
That, when a soul is found sincerely so, 

A thousand liveried angels lackey her, 

Driving far off each thing of sin and guilt.— Milton. 

Who has not felt how sadly sweet 

The dream of home, the dream of home. 

Steals o’er the heart, too soon to fleet, 

When far o’er sea or land we roam ?— Moore. 

No peace nor ease the heart can know 
Which, like the needle true, 

Turns at the touch of joy or woe, 

But, turning, trembles too.— Mrs. Grevrille. 

Truth crushed to earth shall rise again; 

The eternal years of God are hers; 

But Error, wounded, writhes with pain, 

And dies among his worshipers.— Byron. 

Rest here, distrest by poverty no more ; 

Here find that calm thou gav’st so oft before ; 

Sleep, undisturb’d, within this peaceful shrine, 

’Till angels wake thee with a note like thine.— Johnson. 

Care to our coffin adds a nail, no doubt. 

And every grin so merry draws one out.— Wolcot. 

Shall I, wasting in despair. 

Die because a woman's fair? 

Or make pale my cheeks with care 
’Cause another’s rosy are ? 

Be she fairer than the day. 

Or the flow’ry meads in May, 

If she be not so to me, 

What care I how fair she be?— Wither. 

The world’s a bubble, and the life of man. 

Less than a span.— Bacon. 

Great wit is sure to madness close allied, 

And thin partitions do their bounds divide.— Dryden. 

431 




GEMS OF POETRT. 

What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties! in 
form and moving, how express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel 1 in ap¬ 
prehension, how like a god !— Shakespeare. 

She walks in beauty, like the night 
Of cloudless climes and starry skies; 

And all that’s best of dark and bright 
Meet in her aspect and her eyes ; 

Thus mellow’d to that tender light 

Which Heaven to gaudy day denies.— Byron. 

If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small.— Old Testament. 

In Faith and Hope the world will disagree, 

But all mankind’s concern is Charity.— Fope. 

Sweet are the uses of adversity, 

Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous, 

Wears yet a precious jewel in his head ; 

And thus our life, exempt from public haunt. 

Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks. 

Sermons in stones, and good in everything.— Shakespeare. 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot. 

And never brought to min’ ? 

Should auld acquaintance be forgot. 

And days o’ auld lang syne?— Burns. 

Statesman, yet friend to truth ! Of soul sincere, 

In action faithful and in honor clear ; 

Who broke no promise, serv’d no private end ; 

Who gained no title, and who lost no friend.— Pope. 

O woman, lovely woman ! nature made thee 
To temper man ; we had been brutes without you. 

Angels are painted fair, to look like you ; 

There’s in you all that we believe in heaven : 

Amazing brightness, purity and truth, 

Eternal joy and everlasting love. — Otway. 


MISQUOTATIONS. 

It is a peculiar faculty of human memory to misquote proverbs 

and poetry, and almost invariably to place the credit where it does not belong. 

Nine men out of ten think that “The Lord tempers the wind to the shorn lamb” is 
from the Bible, whereas Lawrence Sterne is the author. “Pouring oil upon the 
troubled waters” is also ascribed to the sacred volume, whereas it is not there ; in 
fact, no one knows its origin. 

Again, we hear people say : “The proof of the pudding is in chewing the string.” 
This is arrant nonsense, as the proverb says : 

“The proof of the pudding is in the eating thereof, and not in chewing the string.” 
Nothing is more common than to hear : 

A man convinced against his will 
I§ of the same opinion still. 

This is an impossible condition of the mind, for no one can be convinced of an 
opinion and at the same time hold an opposite one. What Butler wrote was emi¬ 
nently sensible: 

He that complies against his will 
Is of his own opinion still. 

432 



P OS TA L IN FORM A TION. 

A famous passage of Scripture is often misquoted thus: “He that is without sin 
&mong you, let him cast the first stone.” It should be : “Let him first cast a stone.” 

Sometimes we are told; “Behold how great a fire a little matter kindleth,” 
whereas St James said: “Behold how great a matter a little fire kindleth,” which 
is quite a different thing. 

We also hear that a “miss is as good as a mile,” which is not as sensible or forcible 
as the true proverb; “A miss of an inch is as good as a mile.” 

“Look before you leap” should be : “And look before you ere you leap.” 

Pope is generally credited with having written : 

Immodest words admit of no defense. 

For want of decency is want of sense, 

though it would puzzle any one to find the verses in his writings. They were writ¬ 
ten by the Earl of Roscommon, who died before Pope was born. 

Franklin said : “Honesty is the best of policy,” but the maxim is of Spanish ori¬ 
gin, and may be found in “Don Quixote.” 


POSTAL INFORMATION. 

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Valuable Letters may be registered by paying a charge 

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Any Package may have the name and address of the sender, 

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articles may be added in brief form. 

Postal Note, payable to bearer at any money order office 

designed by the purchaser of the note, must be for an amount under five dollars, 
and will cost three cents. 

Money Orders : The fee for a money order not exceeding 
$10 is 8 cents: $10 to $15, 10 cents; $ 15 to $ 30, 15 cents;; $30 to #40, 20 cents; $4cr.tp 
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$80 to $100, 45 cents. 

4 «id 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX 


See also list of Maps, Charts and Diagratns in Summary 

of Contents. 


Abolition movement, the. 160 

Abstracts of title. 246 

Accidents and emergencies. 326 

Accidents on railroads, chances of. .303 
Acknowledgment, Certificate bf. 261 


Adams, John Quincy, administration 

Administrators, duties of. 253 

Advertisers, hints to. 299 

Afghanistan. ... gg 

Africa. Jqj 

Agency and attorney. 240 

Age of the earth. ^8 

Agreement, general form of....... _260 

Agreements and contracts. 233 

Agricultural or mineral lands. 268 

Air, dangers of foul. 307 

Alabama, map of.75 

Alaska, map of..74. 

Alcohol, degrees of, in wines, etc. .-230 

Alcoholic poisoning. 329 

Alexander the Great.357 

AlexandrianLibrary, the. ] [ 

Alloys, table of. 392 

“Almighty Dollar,” origin of.. 9 

Amendments to the Constitution... -274 

America, discovery of. 1 [ 

America (history of). 203 

American party, the. 265 

Amsterdam.13 

Annuity policies. 296 

Antidotes for poisons. 329 , 345 

Anti-Federalist party, the. 152 

Anti-Masonic party, the. 160 

Ants. 352 

Ants, to destroy. 339 

Apoplexy. 312 , 329 

Apostles, fate of the. 343 

Apothecaries’ weight. 348 

Arabia. 84 

Arbitration, the laws of.. 251 

Architects, handy facts for. 385 

Arch, largest. 15 

Arctic exploration. 183 

Area of principal countries. 68 

Area of States —See maps. 

Areas of circles. 383 

Argentine Republic. 124 

Arizona, map of. 78 

Arkansas, map of..... 79 

Army, proportions of.. 178 

Army, salaries of officers. 145 

Aromatic spirits of vinegar. 334 

Arrest, exemption from.. 284 

436 


Arrests without warrant.284 

Arson. 284 

Arthur’s administration.*. .168 

Artificial feeding of infants....324 

Asia.. 84 

Assault and battefy. .284 

Assignment, form of—..269 

Assignment of copyright...269 

Assignment of patents.. * .272 

Assignments. >248 

Assyria (history of).193 

Asthma.320 

Attorney, form of power of.26l 

Australia.93 

Australian ballot system, the.279 

Austro-Hungary.77 

Authors and royalties.225 

Avoirdupois weights. 348 

Babylonia (history of).193 

Balloon, first ascension. 9 

Baluchistan. 88 

Bank controversy, the.160 

Bankers’ time table.302 

Banking capital. 225 

Bank notes, portraits on.148 

Bankruptcy.292 

Bankrupt, origin of term..401 

Barbed wire for fences.353 

Bar bell, the.309 

Bar iron, flat, weight of...;.381 

Barnabas, St.343 

“Barnburners,” the.-164 

Barrels, how to measure.350 

Barrenness.225 

Bartholdi’s statue of Liberty.16 

Bartholomew, St. 343 

Battles, number killed in.178 

Battles of history, the decisive.178 

Bay rum. 335 

Bed bugs.340 

Belgium. 73 

Bell-metal.225 

Bells, largest.H, 225 

Belting, horse power of.387 

Belting, table of. 387 

Bible, facts about the. 170, 231 

Bibles of the world, the seven.346 

Bigamy.284 

Big trees. 394 

Bile. 312 

Bilious cholera.321 

Bilious complaints.312, 320 

Bill of exchange, form of..260 

Bill of sale, form of.260, 263 

Bills of sale. 250 












































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX . 


Birds, flight of..225 

Birds, life of. 14 

Birmingham wire gauges.382 

Birthdays.400 

Blackboards, how to make.414 

Bladder, inflammation of the.313 

Bleeding from the nose.327 

Blindness.231 

Board and plank measurement table. 355 
Boarding-houses, inns, etc., the law 

of.249 

Body in flames.326 

Bokhara.38 

Boiler chimneys.392 

Boilers, etc.386 

Boilers, size and capacity of.391 

Boiling, fusing and freezing points.. .307 

Bolivia.121 

Bonds and guaranty.250 

Bonds and stocks.290 

Bond, common form of...260 

Bond for a deed, form of.. 261 

Books, invention of. 12 

Book work measurement.403 

Boots and shoes, to make waterproof.338 

Boots, cement for rubber.423 

Boston fire.192 

Bovines vs. equines.288 

Bowels, inflammation of the.313 

Bowels, looseness of the.314 

Brain, compression of the.328 

Brain, inflammation of the.313 

Brain, measurement of the.230 

Brain, water on the.315 

Brassware, to clean.339 

Brazil.124 

Breath, bad.333 

Brick chimneys.391 

Bricklayers and plasterers, facts for.362 

Bricks and pottery, color of..351 

Bricks, number in a building.363 

Brick required to construct any build¬ 
ing .361 

Bridges. ... 16 

Bridges, railroad. 303 

British America (history of).204 

British Columbia. 109 

British Isles, the.69 

British New Guine*..100 

British North America.108 

Brokerage and commission.291 

Bronchitis.320 

Brooklyn theater fire.192 

Brooms, to preserve.339 

Brown, John.165 

Bruises and wounds.320 

Buchanan’s administration.165 

Buddhism.425 

Bug poison.340 

Building, highest. 18 


Building materials, wear and tear of. 374 


Builders’ estimating tables.364 

Builders, handy facts for.361, 385 

Buildings, height of.184 

Buildings, public, capacity of..229 

Burglary. . .284 

Burma.89 

Burns and scalds.326 

Burr’s expedition.153 

Bushel, legal weight of..352 

Business and legal forms. 260 

Business law in brief..232 

Business letters. 42 

Cable, first Atlantic. H 

Calhoun.157 

California, map of.82 

Camel, facts about the.226 

Canary birds, the care of.317 

Candle-power.280 

Cape Colony..101 

Capital employed in banking.225 

Capitals of principal countries. 68 

Capitals, State and Territorial.145 

Capitals, the use of.42 

Capitol building, Washington. 17 

Carbon in food.331 

Car, capacity of freight.. 306 

Carpenters’ work and measuring... .371 

Carpets, kerosene stains in.338 

Carpets, to brighten.338 

Carrier-pigeons.226 

Casks, how to measure.350 

Cast iron and timber, strength of... .364 
Cast iron, approximate weight of... .380 
Cast iron, assumed weight in esti¬ 
mating. 379 

Cast iron balls, weight of, etc. 379 

Cast iron columns, weight of.378 

Cast iron, round, weight of..379 

Catacombs.14 

Catarrh...320 

Cathedrals, height of .184 

Cattle and horses, difference be¬ 
tween.288 

Cattle, shipments of.14 

Cattle, to tell age of.344 

Cattle, weight of..350 

Caveats.272 

Cavern, largest. 12 

Cellar, to disinfect a.....337 

Cement.363 

Cement and lime, weight of.376 

Cement for rubber boots.423 

Cement, how to use.365 

Cement, tin box.335 

Census, U. S.141 

Centigrade thermometer.306 

Central Africa. .101 

Central America. 117 

Central America, map of..163 

Certificate of acknowledgment.261 

Certificates, stock.289 
















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX . 


Chairs and desks for schools, sizes of. 375 


Chaldea (history of).193 

Chance, the laws of.294 

Change, how to make .. ■ .300 

Change, terms used on.292 

Charleston, great fire at.192 

Chattel mortgages.247 

Checks paid in N. Y. and London. .226 

Cheops, pyramid of. 227 

Chest weights.309 

Chicago fire.192 

Chicago, wonderful growth of..133 

Chicken-pox. .312, 325 

Chilblains.312, 320 

Chili. 124 

Chimneys, boiler.392 

Chimneys, brick..,,,. 391 

China. ... 89 

Chinese wall. 11 

Choking.325, 328 

Cholera.321 

Cholera, Asiatic.321 

Cholera, English.314 

Cholera, bilious. 32l 

Cholera epidemics.231 

Cholera mixture.324 

Christian names of men.420 

Christian names of women.421 

Christians, number of.15 

Church, largest. 17 

Cipher marks, private.300 

Circle, the area of a.382 

Circles, table of areasof.383 

Circles, table of circumferences of. .384 

Circular arc, length of.400 

Circumference of earth—how meas¬ 
ured . 64 

Circumferences of circles.384 

Cistern measure.350 

Cisterns, capacity of.390 

Cities, nicknames of.140 

Cities of the U. S., table of.129 

City, oldest in U. S. 12 

Cities, the world’s largest.128 

Civil service, the.281 

Civil war of 1861-1865 .171 

Civil war, naval battles of the.175 

Civil war, principal battles ot the... 173 

Claims, mining.267 

Clay compromise, the.164 

Clay, Henry.157 

Cleveland’s administration.168 

Climates of the U. S.412 

Coal, curious by-products from.274 

Coal in the U. S.189 

Coal used as fuel. 13 

Cockroaches, to kill.339 

Codicils.252 

Coin, weight of. 14 

Cold in the head.320 

Cold, severest on record. .183 

438 


Colic.321 

Collection of debts.299 

Cologne water.334 

Colombia ..120 

Colonies, the American (history of). .203 

Colorado, map of. 83 

Colors, combinations of.392 

Colors, symbolic meaning of.148 

Columns, cast iron, weight of. 378 

Commission.291 

Common fever.312 

Compound interest.300 

Compression of the brain...328 

Concussion.328 

Confederacy, Southern, formation 

. ..160 

Confederate States (hist, chart).207 

Conflagrations, great......192 

Congress. 273 

Connecticut, map of.... . 86 

Congo Free State. .104 

Constipation...312, 321 

Constitutional Union party, the.165 

Constitutional law. 273 

Constitution, amendments to the....274 
Constitutions (State), adoption of. ...152 
Constitution (U. S ), adoption of .. 152 

Consumption.312 

Consumption, death from.229 

Contagious diseases. 325 

Continental Congress. .149 

Contusions. 327 

Convulsions.312, 321 

Contracts and agreements.233 

Cooking, loss of meat in. 334 

Copernicus, system of.63 

“Copperheads”.166 

Copyright, the law of.269 

Cork, to remove a broken. 338 

Corliss engine, the.18 

Corn, how to measure.350, 353 

Corns. 334 

Corporations.251 

Cost and price marks.300 

Cotton, first raised in U. S . H 

Cotton spinning. 9 

Cough, common.312, 321 

Cough, whooping. 323, 325 

Counterfeit money, how to detect.. .301 

Cracks in plaster, to fill.338 

Cremation.226 

Criminal law, points of..284 

Crittenden compromise, the.166 

Cross ledges (mining laws).268 

Cross ties per mile.360 

Croup.312, 321 

Crushing strength of stones, etc.377 

Cubes and squares, tables of.396 

Custom-house, largest.19 

Customs duties, list of.285 

Cuts and wounds.327 

















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


ylinder, to find capacity of a.389 

ylindrical cisterns or tanks, capaci¬ 
ty of .390 

Cyprus. 80 

Daguerreotype process, invention of 12 

Dakota, map of.... 87 

Dandruff. 334 

Dark Ages... 10 

Davis, Jefferson.166 

Days of the week.409 

Deaf and dumb asylum, largest.... 13 

Debts, how to collect.... ..299 

Decimal approximations.380 

Decimal equivalents of fractions... -385 

Deed, form of quit-claim.261 

Deed, form of warranty.261 

Deeds.245 

Delaware, map of. 90 

Democratic party, the.157 

Democratic-Republican party, the.. 152 

Demonetization of silver.424 

Denmark. 77 

Depilatory, a safe. .333 

Desert, the largest. 13 

Desks for schools, sizes of, etc.375 

Diamonds, largest.13, 226 

Diarrhoea.321 

Diet in homoeopathy.324 

Digestion of various foods.332 

Dirt in the eye.326 

Discounts, trade.30 L 

Diseases.312 

Diseases, contagious. 325 

Disinfectants.337 

Dislocated thumb..327 

Distances from New York.259 

Dividends.289 

Divorce, State laws governing. 255 

Dollar, the standard silver.424 

Domestic and drop measures.349 

Doses for the horse.345 

Doses of medicine..330 

Doses in homoeopathy..323 

Doses, safe, of poisonous drugs..331 

Doses, table of proportion, etc.330 

Dower, the right of.255 

Draft, form of.260 

Draft at sight, form of.2b4 

Drafts.232, 233, 236 

Drain-pipe, capacity of..367 

Dred Scott decision, the.165 

Dropsy.313 

Drowning.328 

Drugs, poisonous.331 

Drunkenness, apparent death from.329 
Drunkenness not an excuse for crime.284 

Ducks, geese and turkeys.341 

Due bill, form of.264 

Dumb-bell exercise.309 

Durability of woods.393 

Duties, customs.285 


Dwarfs, famous.18l 

Dysentery. 321 

Dyspepsia. 313, 322 

Earnings of U. S.141 

Earth, circumference of, how meas¬ 
ured. 64 

Earth, estimated age of...128 

Earthquakes.408 

Earnings.339 

Eastern Empire, the.197 

Eastern Equatorial Africa.104 

Echo, the most remarkable. 13 

Ecuador.121 

Eddas, the.346 

Education —See various countries. 

Eggs, how to keep fresh.337 

Egypt.105 

Egypt (history of)...193. 195 

Egyptian obelisks.410 

Eight-hour movement, the.188 

Elections, State, when held.278 

Electoral count act, the.277 

Electoral College, the.276 

Electrical terms.419 

Electric eel.II 

Electricity, storage of.418 

Electricity, the wonders of.415 

Electric light.9, 12, 416 

Electric railway, the.416 

Electric signal, first transmitted.... 13 

Electric telegraph, first.10 

Electricity, velocity of..12 

Electro-magnetism. 10 

Elevation of continents.226 

Emancipation, proclamation of...... 166 

Embezzelment. 284 

Emergencies.326 

Empire, largest.13 

Enamel for shirt bosoms.339 

Endowment policies.296 

Engine, largest stationary. 14 

England and Wales.69 

England (history of).198, 201 

English cholera.314 

Engravings, transferring.43 

Envelopes, first use of.10 

Epilepsy. . 313 

Erasures in deeds.246 

Errors in speaking.31 

Eruptions on the face. 313 

Erysipelas. 313, 325 

Estimates of materials.363 

Estimating tables, builders’.364 

Ether, first used. 10 

Europe. 69 

Evaporation of water from fuel.226 

Evictions in Ireland..181 

Evolution, the theory of.425 

Exchange, form of bill of.260 

Executors, duties of.253 

Exemption from arrest..284 


439 




















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Exemption from taxation.298 

Exercise, physical.309 

Expectation of life.296 

Express, first. 10 

Eye, dirt in the.326 

Eye, iron or steel spiculae in the... .327 

Eye, lime in the.326 

Eyes, inflamed.314 

Factory fires.192 

Facts about our country.144 

Fahrenheit’s thermometer.306 

Fainting, hysterics, etc.313. 328 

Faintness.313 

Families in U. S .297 

Famines of history, the great.183 

Farm, largest. 15 

Farms in U. S.297 

Farms, law relating to, etc.243 

Fasting. 226 

Federalist party, the.152 

Federation of Labor.189 

Felony.284 

Fences, barbed wire for......353 

Ferry-boat, largest.18 

Fever, common.312 

Fever, intermittent.314 

Fever, typhus.315, 325 

Fevers.322 

Fields and lots, contents of.353 

Fiji Islands.100 

Fillmore’s administration.164 

Financial panics.182 

Finding, the law of.258 

Fire company, first volunteer.12 

Fire insurance. 295 

Fire insurance, first office. 9 

Fire-kindler, economical.337 

Fire-proof wood.423 

Fires and conflagrations.192 

Fishes, curious facts about.354 

Fits....329 

Five kings, the. 346 

Flag and lantern signals.304 

Flag, the American.13 

Flames, body in.326 

Flatulency.322 

Flax, production of.226 

Flies, to destroy.340 

Floating policies.295 

Floods and inundations.192 

Floor, wall and roof measure..363 

Floors, weight of and load upon... .375 

Florida, map of. 91 

Flowers, language of.413 

Flowers, to keep fresh.339 

Food, carbon in. 331 

Food, digestion of.332 

Food, nutrition in various articles of.332 

Food, properties of..332 

Food, relative value of.331 

Food, waste of.141 


Food for stock.351 

Foreign money, value of.347 

Forest fires.192 

Fort Sumter, attack on.166 

Foul air, dangers of.307 

France. 73 

France (history of).198, 201 

Franco-German war. 226 

Freelist, the customs.287 

Free-Soil Democrats..164 

Freezing mixtures without ice.308 

Freight car, capacity of..306 

Freight, comparative cost of by water 

and rail. 19 

French colonies in Africa.104 

Frost bite.313 

Frozen limbs.313 

Fruits, degrees of sugar in.331 

Freezing, fusing and boiling points..307 

Fuel, water evaporation of..226 

Furniture polish. 423 

Gallon, weight of a.389 

Gases, suffocation from noxious.329 

Gas, facts about.369 

Gas, first illumination with. 11 

Gas-pipe, to thaw out.337 

Garfield, Jas. A., twentieth presi¬ 
dent .168 

Gauges and their equivalents.381 

Gauges, wire.382 

Geese, ducks and turkeys. 343 

Gems, language of.414 

Gems of poetry.428 

Gems of knowledge. 9 

Generals commanding U. S. army..169 

General warranty deeds.246 

Geographical nicknames.137 

Georgia, map of ..94 

German colonies in Africa.104 

German Empire re-established. 10 

German New Guinea. 400 

Germany. 75 

Germany (history of).... 198, 201, 202 

Ghent, the city of. 354 

Giants and dwarfs, famous. -101 

Gibraltar.- • • 80 

Gilt frames, to freshen.ggg 

Glass. 370 

Glass, first transparent. 49 

Glass, panes of, in a box. 374 

Glass stopper, to loosen. 333 

Glassware, to toughen. 333 

Glazing and painting. 379 

Globe, to find solidity of. 332 

Globe, to find surface of.382 

Goats, to tell age of.. 344 

Gold first discovered. 9 

Gold miners, table for.358 

Government of principal countries.. 68 

Government salaries.444 

Gout. 343 


440 


















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Grade per mile. 354 

Grain measure.350 

Grand jury.274 

Grand larceny.284 

Grant’s administration.167 

Graphophone, the.416 

Gravel...313 

Gravity, specific, table of.394 

Greece. 80 

Greece (history of).194 

Greeley expedition, the.128 

Greenback party, the.167 

Grenades, hand..191 

Guaranty, the law of. 250 

Guiana...120 

Gymnastic exercises. 309 

Hand grenades.191 

Handy facts for architects and build¬ 
ers.385 

Handy facts to settle arguments.... 9 

Hanging.328 

Hair brushes, cleaning.333 

Hair, color of.225 

Hair invigorator.333 

Hair, removing.333 

Hair, tricopherous for the.333 

Harrison’s, Benj.W., administration. 168 
Harrison, W. H., ninth president.. .161 

Hartford convention, the.153 

Harvard College. 9 

Hawks, flight of. 9 

Hayes’ administration.167 

Hay in mow, how to measure.350 

Headache.322 

Health, rules for preservation of-318 

Heartburn.322 

Heart, palpitation of the.314 

Heat, excessive, in the past.182 

Heat, summer, in various countries. 182 

Hebrew race, the.308 

Hebrews, history of the.193 

Heirship to property not bequeathed. 253 

Heligoland. 30 

Hemorrhage.327 

Hiccough, cure for.324 

Hierarchy, the Roman Catholic.228 

High water.264 

Hints to advertisers.299 

History (the world’s) at a glance... .193 

Homestead law.282 

Homoeopathic remedies.319 

Homoeopathy.319 

Homoeopathy, diet in.324 

Homoeopathy, doses in.323 

Homoeopathy, when introduced.... 10 

Horizontal bar exercise.309 

Herns, how to polish.414 

Horse, endurance of the.172 

Horse, medicines for the.345 

Horse, how to tell age of.344 

Horse-power.227 


Horse-power necessary to elevate 


water.389 

Horse-power of belting.387 

Horse-power of steam engines, etc. .386 

Horse railroad, first built.12 

Horses and cattle, differences be¬ 
tween.288 

Horseshoes, first made. 10 

Horse, what a, can draw.347 

Hotel, largest. 19 

Hotels, the law of. .249 

How to detect counterfeit money.. .301 

Human life, average. 12 

Hurricane, velocity of. 12 

Hydraulic information, useful.... .389 

Hygiene. 312 

Hysterics. 313 , 328 

Iceland. 80 

Icelandic discovery of America.203 

Ice, strength of.227 

Idaho, map of. 95 

Illegitimate births.227 

Illinois, map of. 98 

Illiteracy, statistics of. 187 

Impeachment.273 

Import duties in various countries.. .187 

India. 89 

Indiana, map of.99 

Indian country, the.185 

Indian Territory, map of.102 

Indian, the American.187 

India rubber. 227 

Indelible ink.337 

Indentures.400 

Independence, declaration of.149 

Independence, war of.152 

Indigestion.313, 322 

Indorsement of notes.237 

Infamous crimes in law.2«4 

Infants, artificial feeding of........ .324 

Inflamed eyes. 314 

Inflammation of the bowels.313 

Inflammation of the bladder.*..313 

Inflammation of the brain.313 

Inflammation of the kidneys.313 

Inflammation of the liver.313 

Inflammation of the lungs.313 

Inflammation of the stomach.314 

Inflammatory sore throat.314 

Influenza...314 

Ink, indelible.337 

Inks, printing.392 

Inland seas, area of, etc...259 

Inns, hotels and boarding-houses, the 

law of.249 

Insanity, causes of, etc.231 

Insects, to destroy.340 

Installment note.264 

Insurance.295 

Insurance company, largest. 13 

Interest accumulation.300 


441 










































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX . 


Interest laws.265 

Interest rules.301 

Interesting facts of science, etc.225 

Interlineations in deeds...246 

Intermittent feVer.. <....314 

Internal revenue.*. --298 

Inter-State commerce law.293 

Inundations .. 192 

Iowa, map of...103 

Ireland. 72 

Ireland, evictions in.181 

Iron —See bar iron , cast iron and 
wrought iron. 

Iron and wood, weight of.376 

Iron ore, first discovered..12 

Italy. 77 

Itch. .....314 

Jackson’s administration.157 

James, St.343 

Japan.#.89 

Jaundice...314 

Jefferson, Thomas, administration of. 153 

Jesuits, order of, founded. 10 

Johnson’s administration.167 

John, St.343 

Johnstown flood.192 

Joint life policies.296 

Jude, St.343 

Kansas, map of.106 

Kentucky, map of.107 

Kerosene first used for illuminating. 11 

Khiva and Bokhara. 88 

Kidneys, inflammation of the.313 

Knights of Labor.189 

Knives, first used.12 

Know-Nothings.165 

Koran, the.346 

Labor congress, national.189 

Labor, Federation of.189 

Labor, organized, in the U. S.188 

Labrador.112 

Lake Superior. 17 

Landlord &nd tenant.241 

Land measure.351 

Land measure (U. S).282 

Land monopoly.186 

Lamp chimneys, to toughen.338 

Language of flowers.413 

Language of gems ..414 

Languages, name of God in 48 . 19 

Languages, number of.. 9 

Lantern signals.304 

Larceny, grand and petty.284 

Lavender water.335 

Law (business) in brief.232 

Law, constitutional.273 

Law, criminal.284 

Law relating to farms, etc.243 

Laws of chance. 294 

Lead, compression of.. 62 

Leads and slugs.402 


Leads for book work.404 

Lead pipe, sizes and weights of..... 366 

Leads for newspapers ....403 

Lead, sheet, weight of..367 

Leap years . 14 

Leases.241 

Lease, short form of..262 

Legacies. 253 

Legal advice.232 

Legal forms.260 

Legal tender.273 

Leipsic fair, the.226 

Leprosy.227 

Letter combinations.191 

Letter writing.42 

Liberty, Bartholdi’s statue of. 16 

Liberty party, the.161 

Libraries, statistics of.. 15 

Library, first American.12 

Library, largest. 14 

Lien laws.244 

Life average for professions.225 

Life, average of. .228 

Life insurance, first.10 

Lightning and sunstroke.329 

Light, velocity of.11 

Limitation, statutes of.265 

Limited payment life policies.296 

Lime, weight of.376 

Lincoln’s administration.166 

Lincoln, assassination of.10 

Lisbon earthquake. 4 O 8 

Liver complaint. 312 

Liver, inflammation of the.313 

Load upon floors.375 

Locomotive, cost of a.303 

Locomotive, largest. ]6 

Locomotive whistle signals.395 

Logs reduced to inch board measure.357 

I.oisette’s system ot memory. 20 

London fire.192 

Looseness of the bowels.314 

Lots and fields, contents of.353 

Louisiana, map of.110 

Louisiana purchase.153 

Luke, St.343 

Lumber, etc,, weight of.373 

Lumber, to find quantity of, in a log.354 

Luminous paint.'..43 

Lungs, inflammation of the. 313 

Luxemburg.76 

Macedon (history of;.194,195 

Madison’s administration... 153 

Mails, money lost in.273 

Maine, map of.Ill 

Majority, age when attained.276 

Malta. go 

Manhattan, origin of name.365 

Manitoba. 109 

Manitoba, map of.71 

Mankind, races of. 65 

442 





















































































































Alphabetical index . 


Mansion, costliest. 17 

Man, tallest. 14 

Marble slabs, weight of.376 

Marine insurance.297 

Mark. St...343 

Marriage and divorce.255 

Marriage, woman’s chances of.409 

Married women, rights of.257 

Maryland, map of.114 

Masonry, weight of.376 

Mason work.363 

Massachusetts, map of.115 

Match, first lucifer... 11 

Matthew, St.343 

Matthias, St.343 

Mauritius.108 

Mayflower’s passengers, the.410 

Mayhem.284 

Measles.314, 322, 325 

Measurement, type, by square inch’s.404 

Measures of capacity.351 

Measures, the meaning of.349 

Meat, loss of, in cooking.331 

Medicine and hygiene..312 

Medicine, doses of. 330 

Medicines for the horse.345 

Meerschaum. 11 

Memory, Loisette’s system of. 20 

Menstruation.314 

Metals, combinations of.392 

Metric tables, handy.349 

Metric weights and measures.348 

Mexico.117 

Mexico, map of.162 

Mexico, war with..11, 161 

Michigan, map of.118 

Militia, State.274 

Mind cure, the.426 

Mineral lands (mining laws).268 

Mines, largest and deepest. 16 

Mining laws.267 

Minnesota, map of.119 

Mirrors, glass, first made. 11 

Misquotations.432 

Mississippi, map of.122 

Mississippi river. 18 

Missouri compromise.156 

Missouri, map of.123 

Mixing inks and paints.392 

Mold, to prevent...337 

Monarchsand their end.288 

Money, Roman, in NewTestament.189 
Money, time in which it doubles.. .3(10 

Money, value of foreign.347 

Monkey wrench, the. 15 

Monopoly, land.186 

Monroe doctrine, the....... .156 

Monroe, J^nes, administration of. ..156 

Montana, map of.126 

Mouth wash....333 

Monuments, height of.184 


Monument, highest.14 

Mormons, arrival of. 12 

Mortgage, form of.261 

Mortgages.247 

Mosquitoes, to keep out.339 

Moths, to get rid of. 340 

Mottoes of the States.136 

Mountain, highest. 18 

Mountains, highest range. 9 

Mrs. Partington, the original.349 

Mucilage.335 

Mumps.314, 323 

Murder, degrees of.284 

Musical notes first used. H 

Mustache grower.334 

Mysticism.425 

Nails and spikes.,359 

Nails required for different kinds of 

work. 360 

Names and their meaning.420 

Names of the States.133 

Napoleon 1. 9 

Nares’ expedition.125 

Natal. 101 

Native American 'party.161 

Natural bridge, highest. 13 

Naturalization.275 

Natural sines, etc. 404 

Nature’s wonders, some of.231 

Navy in the civil war, the.176 

Navy, salaries of officers.145 

Nebraska, map of.127 

Nebular hypothesis. 64 

Needles first used.. 12 

Negotiable paper...232, 233, 236 

N ervousness.314 

Netherlands, the... 73 

Nettlerash.323 

Nevada, map of... ..130 

New Brunswick.109 

Newfoundland.112 

New Guinea.100 

New Hampshire, map of.131 

New Jersey, map of.134 

New Mexico, map of.135 

New South Wales.96 

Newspaper measure, standard.402 

Newspapers. 14 

Newspapers in U. S. 15 

Newspapers, number of. .189 

Newspapers, sizes of.404 

Newspaper type measurement.403 

New York fire.192 

New York, map of.138 

New Zealand.97 

Niagara Falls .14, 357 

Niagara, horse-power of.227 

Nicknames of cities .140 

Nicknames of States, etc.137 

Nicotine, proportion in tobacco.227 

Nijni-Novgorod, the fair of.226 


443 























































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Non-forfeiting policies.296 

North America, map of. 66 

North Carolina, map of...139 

North Dakota, map of...87 

Northeast passage...125 

N orth west T erritory.109 

Norway and Sweden............... 76 

Nose, bleeding from the.327 

Note, joint promissory.263 

Note not negotiable...263 

Note payable at bank.263 

Note payable by installments.264 

Note payable on demand.263 

Note with surety.263 

Note, promissory, form of.263 

Notesandnegotiable paper.232, 233, 236 

Nova Scotia. 112 

Nullification ordinance.157 

Obelisks, Egyptian.410 

Ocean, depth of the.272 

Oceania. 92 

Ocean passage, quickest.14 

Oceans, dimensions of.259 

Odor, to remove the, from a vial... .338 

Ohio, map of.142 

Ontario, map of. 67 

Open policies.297 

Opium.229, 339 

Orange Free State.101 

Order, 250 points of.190 

Oregon, map of.....143 

Oregon, reoccupation of.161 

Organized labor in the U. £.188 

Overflows, great.192 

Ox, largest.\. l7 

Pacific coast, the.116 

Painting and glazing.370 

Paint, luminous. 43 

Paint, to remove, from window glass.338 

Paints, mixing .392 

Palestine. 85 

Palpitation of the heart.314 

Panics, great financial.182 

Paper, invention of. 9 

Paper money, circulation of. 13 

Paper, book and print, sizes of.406 

Papers, flat, common sizes of.404 

Paraguay.124 

Paris. 14 

Park, largest in U. S. 12 

Park, the most extensive. 12 

Parliamentary law.190 

Partington, the original Mrs.... ... .349 

Partnership, the law of.238 

Paste, a brilliant.335 

Paste, acid-proof...336 

Paste, a perpetual.335 

Paste, a strong. 335 

Paste, a sugar. 335 

Paste for papering boxes.334 

Paste for printing-office.336 

444 


Paste for scrap-books...335 

Paste, paper and leather.335 

Paste to fasten cloth on wood.336 

Patents, how to obtain.270 

Paul, St.....343 

Pennsylvania, map of....;.... .... .146 

Pens, first steel. 11 

Perjury. 284 

Persia. .. 88 

Persia (history of). 194 

Personal liberty laws.164 

Peru...121 

Philip, St.343 

Phonograph, invention of.. 9 

Phonograph, the. 415 

Photographs first produced. 10 

Physical exercise.30§ 

Pianoforte, invention of.. 12 

Piano polish.419 

Pierce’s administration.164 

Piles..314, 323 

Pipe, block tin..367 

Pipe, diameter and capacity of..389 

Pipe, lead, sizes of, etc.366 

Pitch, lake of.353 

Plague, London. 9 

Plagues, remarkable...183 

Planetary system, elements of the. . 63 

Plank measurement table.355 

Plants to an acre. 351 

Plasterers, facts for.362 

Plastering, putty for.362 

Plate glass.370 

Plato’s definition of man.390 

Plumbers, etc., useful tables for.... 366 

Poetry, gems of.428 

Poison for bugs. .340 

Poisons and their antidotes.329, 345 

Polar exploration. 125 

Polish for shirt bosoms. 339 

Political history (U. S.).149 

Polk’s administration.161 

“Poor Man’s Region”......342 

Popes.228 

Popular vote for presidents.279 

Population of American cities.129 

Population of Europe, increase of.. .144 
Population of principal countries... 68 
Population of States —See maps. 

Population of U. S.113 

Population of U. S., increase of.144 

Portraits on bank notes and postage 

stamps.148 

Portugal. 73 

Portuguese colonies in Africa.104 

Postage stamps, first used. 9 

Postage stamps, portraits on.148 

Postal information.433 

Post-office, first established. 11 

Pottery.10 

Poultry, 300 facts about.341 


















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Power of attorney, form of.261 

Power, table of transmission of, by 

wire ropes. .388 

Practical calculations. 350 

Preferred stock.289 

Prescriptions.315 

Preserving wood.419 

Presidency, legal qualifications for 


Presidential election, the.276 

Presidential election statistics.279 

Presidential succession.277 

Presidents of the U. S (table).169 

Pressure of the atmosphere.389 

Pressure of water.389 

Price and cost marks.300 

Prickly heat, cure for.334 

Prince Edward Island.112 

Printers, useful information for.402 

Printing, chronology of. 11 

Printing inks, mixing of.392 

Printing-office paste.336 

Prognostications, weather.407 

Promissory note, form of..263 

Pronunciation, rules of....36,37 

Prussia (history of).201 

Public debt, principal of the.]84 

Public lands, titles to, how acquired.282 

Public schools, first. 10 

Publishers, useful information for.. .402 

Pulleys for physical exercise.311 

Pump cylinders.389 

Pumps, efficient working of..389 

Pumps, double-acting.390 

Punctuation. 41 

Pungents, volatile salts for.834 

Putty for plastering.362 

Pyramid of Cheops. 227 

Pyramid of Ghizeh. 17 

Quebec, map of. 70 

Queensland.96 

Quinsy. 314 

Quit claim deed, form of.261 

Rabbits. .227 

Races of mankind.65 

Railroad construction table.360 

Railroading, twenty points on Amer¬ 
ican.303 

Railroads and transportation.303 

Railroad signals.304 

Railroads, speed on..305 

Railways, miles of in U. S.303 

Railway to the sun.169 

Rails required per mile (table).360 

Rails, steel, duration of.303 

Ramphorhyncus, the.365 

Rank of States —See maps. 

Rats, destruction of.339 

Rats, how to get rid of.191 

Razor-strop paste.334 

Reaumur thermometer.3U6 


Recipes, etc.333 

Reconstruction (Southern).161, 167 

Red River settlement....109 

Redwood trees of California.301 

Religion —See various countries. 

Religion in America.185 

Religious denominations.228 

Republican party, the.152 

Reserve (insurance).296 

Returning board system, the.167 

Rheumatism.314 

Rhode Island, map of.147 

Rickets..315 

Rifle ball, velocity of. 10 

Right of dower, the.255 

Rights of married women.257 

Ringworm.315 

Rivers, flow of. 11 

Rivers, longest. 18 

Road, the rule of the.419 

Roman Catholic hierarchy.228 

Roman money.189 

Rome, founded. 9 

Rome (history of).195 

Roofers, hints for.368 

Roof, wall and floor measure.363 

Rose water.334 

Rotheln.325 

Royalties paid authors. .225 

Rubber boots, cement for.423 

Rubber, India.227 

Rubble.363 

Rule of the road, the. 419 

Russia, European.,.....80 

Russia in Asia.92 

Sacred College, the.228 

Safe doses of poisonous drugs.831 

Salaries, big. 863 

Salaries, government.144 

Salts, volatile.834 

San Francisco, great fire at.....192 

San Marino.376 

Santiago, great fire at.192 

Savings accumulations.300 

Scalds and burns. 326 

Scantling and timber measure.356 

Scarlet fever...315,325 

School, largest. 18 

Scotland. 69 

Scrofula.. f 315 

Scurvy. .315 

Seas, inland, largest... 9 

Seattle, great fire at.192 

Secession, first proposer of.342 

Seeds, quantity required for plant¬ 
ing.352 

Serfdom in Austria.180 

Serfdom in Russia...180 

Serfs, German.... .181 

Settlement, first in America. 12 

Settlement of American cities.129 


445 





















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Settlement of States —See maps. 


Seven sages. 14 

Seven wise men, sayings of the.358 

Seven wondere of the world. 15 

Sewing machine, first patented.11 

Shampoo, liquid....333 

Shaving compound.334 


Shingles, number required in a roof.368 

Ship, largest. 15 

Shirt bosoms, enamel for.339 

Shocks, violent.,.328 

Shoemaker’s measure.409 

Shoes, to make waterproof..338 

Short interest rules.301 

Short rates (insurance).295 

Siam.92 

Sickness, ratio of.228 

Signal Service, U. S.411 

Silver, a wash for cleaning.338 

Silver dollar, the standard.424 

Simon Zealot, St.343 

Sines, tangents, etc.401 

Sinks and drains, to disinfect.337 

Skull, measurement of the.230 

Skylights.370 

Slates, number of, per square.368 

Slavery and serfdom. 179 

Slavery, first established. 11 

Slavery in the U. S.180 

Sleeping-cars, cost of.303 

Sleeping-cars, first in use.303 

Smallpox.315, 325 

Smallpox epidemics.225 

Smelling-salts, inexhaustible.334 

Smoke stains, to remove.336 

Soap, first manufactured. 10 

Solar system, the.63 

Sore throat, inflammatory.314 

Sound, velocity of.,. 9 

South Africa. 101 

South African Republic... .,.101 


South America, map of... 66 

South Australia.96 

South Carolina, map of.139 

South Dakota, map of. 87 

Spain ... 72 

Spanish America (history of).204 

Sparrow, the English.140 

Specific gravity ofvarious substances.394 

Spectacles, invention of. 10 

Speed on railroads.305 

Spelling, short rules for. 41 

Spherical shells, to find weight of.. .379 

Spikes and nails.359 

Spikes, railroad.,.360 

Spirits, when “proof”.230 

Sprains.323 

Shrubs, plants or trees to an acre... .351 
Squatter sovereignty. .165 


Squares and cubes, tables of....396 

Stage favorites.283 

Stains, to remove.336 

Stains, to remove, from furniture... .338 

Standard time. 424 

Starch, percentage of, in food.331 

State and Territorial capitals.145 

State elections, when held.278 

States, mottoes of.136 

States, names of.133 

States, nicknames of.137 

Statistics (U. S.) in a nutshell.141 

Statutes of limitations.265 

Steamboating. 305 

Steam engine, first. 12 

Steam engines.386 

Steamer, first to cross Atlantic. 10 

Steam piston, to find area of.389 

Steel rails, duration of.303 

Steel, tensile test of.394 

Stephens, Alexander H.166 

Sterility., .225 

St. Helena.108 

St.John, great fire at.192 

Stock investments explained.289 

Stomach-ache.321 

Stomach, inflammation of the.314 

Stock, food for. 35 1 

Stolen property.284 

Stones, weight of. 373 

Storm clouds, velocity of. 10 

Storm, velocity of. H 

Stovepipe, to clean. 333 

Strength, comparative scale of.228 

Strike, first .in U. S.188 

Strikes in U. S.. 141 

St. Vitus’ dance. 315 

Suez Canal, the.105 

Suffocation. 329 

Sugar-cane, first cultivated. 11 

Sugar, degrees of, in fruits.331 

Summer heat in various countries.. .182 

Sunday school, first established. 12 

Sun jumps a day, place where.294 

Sunstroke. 329 

Suspension bridge, largest. 13 

Sweden.* . 76 

Switzerland. 76 

Symbolic meaning of colors.148 

Synonyms and antonyms. 44 

Tacks...111. 359 

Tangets, etc. 401 

Tanks, capacity of. 390 

Tariff —See import duties. 

Tariff, the U. S. customs.285 

Tasmania. 97 

Taxes... 298 

Taylor’s administration.164 

Teething .323 

Teeth, removing tartar from the.333 

Telegraph, first in operation.11 

446 



















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Telephone, the.415 

Telescope, invention of the. 10 

Temple, largest. 17 

Tennessee, map of.107 

Tensile and transverse strength.394 

Tensile strength of stones, etc.377 

Tensile test of steel.394 

Term life policies.296 

Terms used on ’Change.292 

Territory (U. S.), acquisition of_144 

Texas... 18 

Texas, annexation of.161 

Texas, map of.150 

Theater, first in U. S. 11 

Theaters. 19 

Theosophy. 425 

Thermometer, facts about the.3C6 

Thermometer, how to test a.337 

Thermometric scales, comparison of.306 

Thomas, St.343 

Throat, inflammatory sore.314 

Thrush.315 

Thumb, dislocated.327 

Ticdoloreux.315 

Ties, cross, per mile (table).360 

Tilden, Samuel J.1C7 

Timber and cast iron, strength of.. .364 

Timber measure (table) .356 

Timber rules.354 

Timber, to tell soundness of.354 

Time difference between New York 

and foreign cities.412 

Time measure. 348 

Time, standard. 424 

Timetable, bankers’.302 

Tin box cement.335 

Tin, roofing..369 

Tints, preparation of.392 

Title, abstracts of....246 

Titles in Great Britain. 13 

Titles of nobility.273 

Tobacco, discovery of.. 13 

Tobacco, proportion of nicotine in. .227 

Toothache. .315 

Toothache cure.333 

Toothache tincture.333 

Tooth paste..333 

Tooth powder.333 

Tories.152 

Torpedo signals.304 

Trade discounts.301 

Trade dollar.424 

Trademarks, the law of.270 

Trade secrets, etc.333 

Trades-unions...188 

Train management.303 

Transferring engravings. 43 

Transfer of property.245 

Transit insurance.297 

Transverse strength.394 

Xreason. .273 


Trees, how to measure...350 

Trees of California^* large.301 

Trees or plants to an acre.351 

Tree, the largest. 13 

Tricopherous for the hair.333 

Trillion, a, what it is.298 

Trip around the world.266 

Troops engaged in civil war.171 

Troy weights.348 

Trust deeds.246 

Try Pitikes, the.346 

Tugs, capacity of.227 

Tunnel, longest.13 

Tunnel, longest railway.303 

Tunnels (mining law).268 

Turkey in Asia. 84 

Turkey in Europe.80 

Turkeys, ducks and geese.343 

Turpentine, the virtues of.335 

Tyler’s administration.161 

Type, body, how to estimate for_402 

Type measurement by square inches.404 

Type, etc., weight of.402 

Typhus fever.. .315, 325 

United States (history of).204 

United States political history.149 

United States, population of.113 

United States, the.112 

University, the largest. 11 

Upas tree, the.374 

Uruguay. 124 

Useful hydraulic information.389 

Utah, map of.151 

Vaccination and smallpox.225 

Valley of death, the.13, 374 

Valley of theUpas Tree.374 

Van Buren’s administration.160 

Vegetables, how to measure.350 

Venezuela.120 

Vermin, to destroy.339 

Vermont, map of.131 

Veto, presidential.273 

Victoria. 96 

Violent shocks. .328 

Virginia, map of.154 

Volatile salts for pungents.334 

Volcano, loftiest, active. 13 

Volcano, the largest.... 13 

Voting and naturalization..275 

Voting, qualifications for in all the 

States.278 

Watches, first constructed. 9 

Watches, first made. 12 

Water for domestic use.390 

“Watering” stock..289 

Water on the brain.315 

Water-pipe, to thaw out.337 

Water-pipes, protecting lead.423 


Waterproof, to make boots or shoes 338 
Water, tQ tell pure...191 


447 


















































































































ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 


Wales. 69 

Wall, roof and floor measure.363 

Wandering Jew, the. .358 

War, losses from.177 

Warranty deed, form of.261 

Wars, American, length and cost of. 177 

Wars, cost of recent.. 177 

Wars of the U. S.170 

Washington City, map of.114 

Washington, George, administration 

of..,.152 

Washington, map of.155 

Washington monument. 18 

Wealth of U. S.141 

Wear and tear of building materials. 374 

Weather forecasts.407 

Weather signals.411 

Weather signs.408 

Wedding anniversaries.400 

Weight in cubic feet of various sub¬ 
stances.394 

Weight of type, etc.402 

Weight of floors, etc.375 

Weights and measures.348 

Weights and measures, handy.349 

Weights, miscellaneous.376 

Western Australia. 97 

Western Empire, the.197 

West Indies.117 

West Indies, map of...163 

West Virginia, map of..154 

What’s in a name?.40 

When a man becomes of age.276 

Whig.. 152 

Whisky ring trials.167 


* 


Whites. 31 

Whooping cough.313, 323, 32 

Will, form of.26 

Wills... 25 

Wilmot proviso, the.16 

Wind and weather signals...41 

Window glass. 371 

Windows, glass, first used. j| 

Wire gauges.38; 

Wire, longest span of. E 

Wire ropes, table of transmission of 

power by.38* 

Wisconsin, map of.15* 

Woman’s chances of marriage.40f 

Wonders of electricity....415 

Wonders of nature.231 

Wood, bulk, how to measure.35( 

Wood engraving. 1 $ 

Wood, fireproof.422 

Wood, how to preserve.41 £ 

Woods, durability of.392 

Wood, weight of.370 

Words often mispronounced. 38 

Working life, man’s.225 

Workingmen’s party.182 

World’s principal countries. 68 

Worms in the intestines.315, 323 

Wounds and bruises. 320 

Wounds and cuts.327 

Wrought iron, approxim’te weight of.380 
Wrought iron, assumed weight of. . .381 

Wyoming, map of.159 

Zanzibar. 104 

Zendavesta, the. 346 





















































































































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